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JOURNALS & PERIODICALS (A-C)

Adams, C., 1997, Facilitated Communication Training: an evaluation, European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 32, 1, 70-75

Commentary on Crossley, 1997. Attempts to dismiss case study.

Is not the final independence of Sarah evidence of the fact that she does not need FC and probably never needed it in the first place?

Allen, B., & Allen, S., 1995, The Process of Socially Constructing Mental Retardation: Toward Value-Based Interaction, JASH, 20, 2, 158-160

Discusses Biklen's article 'I am intelligent' (1994) in terms of social construction of mental retardation.

Allen, B., & Allen, S., 1996, Can the Scientific Method Be Applied to Human Interaction?, American Psychologist, 21, 986

A response to Jacobson, Mulik & Schwartz, 1995 (q.v.).

Archer, A., 1992, Where is the ‘Facile’ in ‘Facilitated Communication’?, Communicating Together, 10, 4, 5-7

Discussion of the 'Carla' case of allegations of sexual abuse in Melbourne, Australia. Notes controversy in professions over the technique. Calls for proponents of FCT to explain the process more carefully (for expanded version, see Sharing to Learn, 1994, in Monographs)

Attwood, T. 1992, Movement Disorders and Autism; A Rationale for the Use of Facilitated Communication, Communication, 26, 3,27-

An explanation of the success of FCT through a movement disorders perspective. Gives preliminary results on a major longitudinal validation study being carried out in Queensland, Australia. An important and valuable reference.

To briefly summarise the current research literature and clinical descriptions of movement disorders and autism, there appears to be a problem with the voluntary control of movement with some features similar to catatonia and Parkinson's disease. In practice this means problems with initiation, impulsivity, co-operation and perseveration. Facilitated Communication has been designed to accomodate specific movement disorders.

First publication dealing with DEAL's client outcomes using FCT, and the first article to raise the question of apraxia as a widespread source of SCI.

...the DEAL team has seen almost 250 clients... many... referred as having severe intellectual disability, autism or severe emotional disturbance in conjunction with their lack of any useful oral or augmentative communication. A pattern began to emerge of clints who did not have a decided handedness, and in fact often hardly used their hands purposefully at all, and who did not co-ordinate eyes and hands even at the most infantile level. Some could use a simple supinate grip to destroy papers and books, but there was rarely a pronate grip, a tripod grasp of a pencil, or isolation of a single finger to point or to touch. Most appeared not to focus eyes and seemed to fail to make, or to actively avoid, eye-contact with others. ... Many were epileptic. Some exhibited extreme low tone... Many lacked facial expression. ...Most were diagnosed as autistic. Yet often the accompanying adults felt that there was 'something there' which they had been unable to reach. We began to attend more to the neurological difficulty these clients seemed to have in initiating and controlling voluntary movement.

A reasonable review of studies on social construction of disability. Emphasizes power relationships between parents and professionals. Short mention of FCT.

For example, recent controversy regarding ‘facilitated communication’...(Cummins & Pryor, 1992) has recently highlighted the need for vigilance for all researchers in ensuring that the communications of people with a disability are their own, and free from external influence.

Validation study with 20 students using multiple testing methods. Facilitators trained for the study by instructors who had been trained at Syracuse. Testing began after 6 weeks. Greater success in known answers wrongly taken as indicating facilitator influence.

Facilitator influence was found, but it was less extensive than in other studies. We also found little evidence that the clients were communicating more with FC than they could do independently.

Hostile study of 12 subjects with generally positive results, which are played down as far as possible.

When the facilitators were appropriately screened... of the 12 subjects and 24 opportunities to show increased ability with FC, improvement was noted 16 times. In only 3 of these 16 cases, however, was the improvement sufficient to indicate that there was a real difference in scores... Closer examination of the responses of the 3 subjects... indicates that factors other than, or in addition to, facilitattion may have impacted their performance. ... Subject 3... progressed from an age equivalent of 1:9 to one of 2:4. This 7-month improvement in performnce did not bring him close to his chronological age level, even after 2 years of facilitation. ...The results of this study do not validate the use of FC with the PPVT-R.

Bennett, C., 1994, Facilitated Communication: Witchcraft & Fantasy, Journal of the Speech-Language-HearingAssociation of Virginia, 34, 21-24

Short piece based on Shane & Wheeler.

Berger, C. L., 1992 , Facilitated Communication; The Breakthrough, Communication Outlook, 14, 3, 5-10

Account of independent discovery of FCT techniques in 1987 by teacher working in special education classes in Oregon.

One day, after stewing in my own frustration over how to help these students communicate, I selected a 7-year-old boy and sat him in front of the computer. ... Fearful that the child would throw the monitor or printer to the floor or that I would be hit, I placed a chair in front of the computer for the student and a second chair behind him for myself. This gave me the ability not only to control his arm movements by placing my arms around him, but also to take his hand and point his index finger to the keyboard. ... Instead of me moving his hand, however, he moved his own hand, along with my own, to the first letter of his name.

Shorter version of Berger, 1992 , Facilitated Communication; The Breakthrough.

Berger, C. L., 1994 , Reading and Writing with Autism, Communicating Together, 16, 1, 9-18

Discussion of learning and teaching literacy with autistic children using FCT.

The learning or bell-shaped curve within the population of those students labelled autistic may eventually show a profile which is quite similar to the normal population. Some individuals will be on the low end of the scale and will have mental deficiencies and others will be in the gifted range. It has yet to be proven that many will not fall within the normal range of intelligence, once they have been given equal opportunity to enjoy a full range of educational opportunities and curricula. Only then will testing their competence be appropriate - and then only by people who have knowledge and experience with augmentative and alternative means of communication.

Berger, C., 1994b, Facilitated Communication: a positive validation study of multiple subjects, The Catalyst, II, 8-10

Biklen, D., 1990, Communication unbound; autism and praxis, Harvard Education Review, 60, 3, 291-314

First American publication on FCT.

<Abstract> His article is a rich qualitative study of a facilitative communication method developed by Rosemary Crossley and her colleagues at the DEAL Communication Centre... This method challenges both Biklen's assumptions and those widely held in the field about the ability of people with autism to communicate. He demonstrates how people who have been labelled severely autistic can selectively communicate with certain facilitators, and in certain circumstances. In so doing, they ... illustrate the effectiveness of an 'education-through-dialogue approach' in which teachers and students learn from each other and where school validates personal expression.

Gives examples of FCT users, gives brief outline of the method, and notes the challenge to prior assumptions about autism.

Biklen, D., 1992, Facilitated Communication; Biklen responds, American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 1, 2, 21-22

Continues debate with Calculator (1992). Defends qualitative research against charges of being 'anecdotal' and defends use of apraxia as a hypothesis.

Biklen, D., 1992, Autism Orthodoxy versus Free Speech; A Reply to Cummins and Prior, Harvard Educational Review, 62, 2, 242-256

A response to Cummins & Prior, 1992, Harvard Educational Review.

Cummins and Prior conclude that "on not one single occasion has a systematic investigation of assisted communication <sic> revealed consistent and valid evidence that such communications emanate from the client." This is simply false. ... Their firmness of belief in current autism orthodoxy apparently prevents them from accepting new, contradicting evidence.

Response to Thompson T, 1994, Communication Unbound - Book Review.

Biklen, D., & Duchan, J., 1994, "I am intelligent": The Social Construction of Mental Retardation, JASH, 19, 3, 173-184

Discusses the influence that views of mental retardation have on attitudes to FCT research.

We will discuss how these two views of retardation, two views of science, and two views of truth apply to facilitated communication. The differences reflect foundational differences between the two camps - differences that go deeper than either side may ever have imagined.

Coverage of validation research exploring possible sources of difficulty.

FC... is not a miracle and certainly will not work for everyone, but those who might benefit from it deserve the right to use it, to type out their words, to be head, to prove their communicative competence, and to be recognized for their accomplishments.

A qualitative study of 21 children using FCT. None were communicating verbally prior to the introduction of FCT. After FCT use 18 were communicating by spelling sentences. Extensive sampling of student work is given. The article presents the basic technique and discusses learning abilities, the role of support, and the implications for schooling.

Biklen, D., Morton, M., Saha, S., Duncan, J., Hardodottir, M., Karna, E., O’Connor, S., & Rao, S., 1991, I AMN NOT A UTISTIC OH THJE TYP (I am not autistic on the typewriter), Disability, Handicap & Society, 6, 3, 161-180

An account of an observational study of the introduction of FCT to 22 students with autism in US schools, leading to the discovery of unexpected literacy and numeracy skills.

The appearance of these abilities raises a number of questions concerning prior assumptions about autism, communication, independence and interdependence, and the education of students with and without disabilities.

Basic text. Discusses communication in autism, the use of FCT and its qualitative examination, gives examples of its use and teaching techniques, discusses apraxia as a possible cause of problems in autism.

Biklen, D., Saha, N., & Kliewer, C., 1995, How Teachers Confirm the Authorship of Facilitated Communication; A Portfolio Approach, JASH, 20, 1, 45-56

Close study of the means used to establish that the communication came from the communication subjects in a qualitative study of FCT.

The teachers provided evidence for 13 of the 17 students of message passing skills... The teachers noted that 3 of these and 4 of the total 17 achieved some independent typing... Sixteen of the 17 students were judged by their teachers to have confirmed their typing/communication ability by virtue of other features; unique physical characteristics in typing or pointing, personal themes, recurring phrases, and stylistic qualities.

An account of the use of FCT with a developmentally delayed child in Iceland.

Bligh, S., & Kupperman, P., 1993, Facilitated Communication Evaluation Procedure Accepted in a Court Case, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23, 3, 553--557

Account of single-case validity testing of person with visual impairment and diagnosed intellectual disability to determine evidential weight of facilitated communication in a case of alleged abuse. Correct answers were given through facilitation only when the facilitator also knew the correct response.

Bligh, S., Kupperman, P., & Klco, J., 1994, Facilitated Communication; Identifying the Source of the Communication, Communication Outlook, 16, 1, 5-9

Suggests totally ill-informed and inappropriate protocol for testing the validity of communications through FC.

However, if the quality of the communication deteriorates when the facilitator’s eyes are averted, or becomes random letter pointing, this is evidence that the facilitator has influenced previous communications.

Response to Crossley, 1994, Finding the Source,. Reprints policy statements from APA, etc.

Bode, T., 1994, Facilitated Communication - One Option, Australian Communication Quarterly, Autumn, 17-18

A speech therapist discusses the use of FCT in practice. Highly cautious, and expresses several reservations, but suggests that it is useful for some clients.

There are positive aspects of facilitated communication. It has served to highlight the needs of people with severe communication impairments and cannot be disregarded, as it has been shown to be a useful method for some clients who have progressed to independent communication.

There are dozens of augmentative communication systems and ozens of accessing methods and training. Ultimately I believe that FCT will take its place as one of these options; being used in the dsame proportions as scanning or Morse cose training, for example.

Bomba, C., O'Donnell, L., Markowitz, C., & Holmes, D., 1996, Evaluating the Impact of facilitated Communication on the Communicative Competence of Fourteen Students with Autism, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 1, 43-58

An experimental study of an attempt to teach 14 autistic students using FC. None of the 14 learned to communicate using FC.

Bondy, A., 1997, Book Review, Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27, 2, 213-217

A review of Crossley's Facilitated Communication Training, Biklen's Communication Unbound, and Shane's Facilitated Communication: The Clinical and Social Phenomenon. Attacks the first two for being unscientifc and praises the last for being scientific.

Botash, A., Babuts, D., Mitchell, N., O'Hara, M., Manuel, J., & Lynch, L., 1994, Evaluations of children who have disclosed sexual abuse via facilitated communication, Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 148, 1282-1287

Braddock, S., Braddock, B., & Graham, J., 1993, Rett Syndrome; An update and Review for the Primary Pediatrician, Clinical Pediatrics, October, 613-626

Brief mention of FCT as a treatment tool for children with Retts.

Facilitated communication using a method of facilitating expressive symbolic language has been useful with some children, including those with autism and many forms of mental retardation, and may also prove to be of therapeutic value for girls with Rett syndrome.

An experimental study of three FC users. Proof of independent communication was illogically discounted because more communication occurred when facilitators knew the material.

...assuming the participant uses FC to communicate, and that this communication process is independent of the facilitator in content, then the participants should respond with equal competence regardless of whether the content is known or unknown to the facilitator.

Validation study with four subjects; negative findings.

While 95% of the responses were correct when the facilitator knew what item was presented, only 19% of the responses were correct when the facilitator was unaware of which item was presented.

Notes FCT successes. Questions rationale of the technique. Calls for further research.

...Stripped of its notoriety, facilitated communication may be found to consist of nothing more than a repackaging of earlier principles... ...further research is necessary in order to identify what, if anything, is unique about this approach: precisely what factors are instrumental in accounting for clients' gains; and what factors are inconsequential.

Carries on debate with Biklen, seeking more information and questioning use of the term apraxia.

Calculator, S., 1992, Communication support for children with severe disabilities in regular classrooms ; Life After Facilitated Communication, The Clinical Connection, 6, 1-4

Calculator, S., 1993, FC: In Search of the Perfect Artichoke, Communicating Together, 11, 4, 17-18

Discussion of the contrast between failures of validation in ‘experimental’ methods and instances of confirmation in everyday use.

Personally, I am now at a point that I can say with total confidence that I don’t have a clue what is going on in this area.

Unfavourable review of Facilitated Communication: The clinical and social phenomenon, ed. Shane, H. Describes it as biased.

In summary, I cannot recommend this book to clinicians, researchers, educators or any other group. Individuals looking for an objective state-of-the-art report on FC will not find it in this book.

Calculator, S., & Singer, K, 1992, Preliminary Validation of Facilitated Communication, Topics in Language Disorders, 12, 5, ix

Report of experimental validation of communication through facilitation in 4 out of 5 clients.

Calculator, S., & Hatch, E., 1995, Validation of facilitated communication; a case study and beyond, _American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology_, 4, 49-58

Unsighted

(Report of experimental validation of communication in single case study).

"...performance with facilitated communication and controls far exceeded previous results on the PPVT"

Practical guide, taken largely from publications by Crossley.

Candelora, V., 1995, Facilitated Communication; A scientific theory or a mode of communication? Should people with autism have a voice in court? Dickinson Law Review, 99, 3, 753-778

Review of legal argument in American FC cases.

Cardinal, Don, 1994, Researchers and the Press; a Cautionary Tale, The Chronicle of Higher Education, October 12, B3

An account of enduring attacks by critics of FC, a brief account of experimental results, and advice for people dealing with the media.

Representatives of the news media do not appear to understand that disagreement almost always exists in journals in the social sciences on any research question.

Experimental study of 43 subjects - the largest single study, incorporating as many trials as all previous studies.

This current study supports the contention that FC may be a reasonable method of instruction for the development of communication for some people with severe communication disorders when used properly. A possible reason why the results of this study vary significantly from many of the previous authorship studies may be that the previous studies over controlled the "test" condition when it was not scientifically obligatory to do so.

Account of introduction of FC to person diagnosed as intellectually impaired.

Chazin, S., 1994, The Secret Life of Arthur Wold, Readers Digest (Australian edition), April 1994, p. 119-124

Reprint of Chazin, 1993.

Chideya, Farai, 1993, The Language of Suspicion, Los Angeles Times Magazine, February 28, 34-36, 52-53

Account of court disputes over abuse cases involving FC.

Clarkson, G., 1994, Creative Music Therapy and Facilitated Communication; New Ways of Reaching Students with Autism, Preventing School Failure, 38, 2, 31-33

Abstract: A music therapist recounts the case of a young man with autism who, after several years of music therapy, began to communicate with the therapist using facilitated communication. The author sees the combination of music therapy and facilitated communication as very promising for people with autism.

Comins, J., 1993, Facilitated Communication - let your fingers do the talking, CSLT Bulletin, September, 10-11

Report for English SLT audience quoting Bode, T., & Emerson, A. on FCT.

Cordes, R., 1992, Facilitated communication - miracle or manipulation?, Trial, 28, 12, 92, December

Unsighted

(In re M.Z., In re Jenny S. v. Mark & Laura) Abstract from Internet; : Two New York family court judges held in cases that evidence elicited with facilitated communication was not acceptable because the method had yet to achieve general acceptance among scientists. In these two cases, autistic children used facilitated communication to allege sexual abuse by parents. Critics of the technique fear facilitators can manipulate the handicapped person into certain allegations.

Unsighted

Abstract from Internet; A Maryland court will rule in State v. Ross on whether an autistic child can use facilitated communication to testify to having been sexually molested. The judge has ruled that there must be independent verification of the child's ability to communicate before such evidence can be admitted. The defense has claimed that facilitated communication violates the right of confrontation and that the technology does not meet the Frye standard of being generally accepted among scientists.

Account of disputes between qualitative and quantative researchers over FCT. Reports successes from Cardinal study.

“We’re having the media try this thing when in fact it belongs in a scholarly journal. I think there are years of research to do on this. It’s a matter of allowing people time.”

An experimental study of 8 students using FC.

The results of the message-passing paradigm indicated that six of the eight subjects failed to correctly pass any messages to the facilitators via FC across 18 trials... These indings provided no evidence that FC is a valid method of communication for these individuals with mental retardation. Limited support for FC was found for the other two subjects...

A discussion of the difficulties faced by people using AAC in courtrooms, with particular examples given of FCT use.

Crossley, R., 1990, Silent Witnesses; The Court System and People Who Use Non-Speech Communication, Talking Politics, v.1, no. 3, USA

A discussion of the difficulties faced by people using AAC in courtrooms, with particular examples given of FCT use.

Crossley, R., 1991, Facilitated Communication Training, Communicating Together, 9, 2, 20-23

A basic outline of the method, including details of hand function impairments.

Crossley, R., 1991, Getting the Words Out: Facilitated Communication Training, Education Quarterly, Number 2, August 1991, 7-9

A brief account of FCT for teachers.

Crossley, R., 1992, Getting the words out: Case Studies in Facilitated Communication Training, Topics in Language Disorders, 12, 4, 46-59

Accounts of the training and achievements of clients using FCT with diagnoses of autism, Down syndrome, and cerebral palsy. A basic text.

Despite its obvious limitations and disadvantages facilitated communication training did enable these individuals to achieve goals previously thought to be impossible. It is a strategy which should be considered for individuals with S<evere> C<ommunication> I<mpairment> whose hand skills limit their ability to use communication aids successfully.

An account of the development of the FCT technique in Australia, covering work with Anne McDonald (see Annie's Coming Out), the opening of DEAL Communication centre, and the extension of the use of the technique to people with autism and other people diagnosed as having intellectual impairment.

...the findings that led to FCT should add further impetus to research into ... the nature of cognitive impairment and autism... <and> the nature of literacy and the neurological links between speech and hand function. One a more practical level, it should remind professional that their assessments should be aimed at uncovering abilities as well as disabilities. Perhaps Heisenberg expressed it best; "What we observe is not nature itself, but nature exposed to our method of questioning."

Commentary on and corrections to articles by Archer (1992), Von Tetzchner (1992), and Waller (1992) (see Journals) in Communicating Together, 10, 4., together with a plea for balance.

It is imperative that sensible, as opposed to sensational, information on FCT is distributed as widely as possible. If not, the problems resulting from inappropriate use will only increase and there is a real risk of the baby being thrown out with the bathwater.

A report on the FCT scene in America, dealing with literacy, behaviour strategies, abuse allegations, purported telepathy, testing practices, and court cases.

A facilitation mythology has developed, the dominant elements of which are belief that:
1. facilitated communication is the best or only communication strategy available for people without speech
2. only people who can spell are suitable candidates for FCT, and that many individuals with SCI have a mysteriously acquired ability to spell
3. the ‘natural’ behaviours of people with SCI should not be challenged
4. all typed communication is totally reliable.

Crossley, R., 1993, Getting the Words Out, Network, 3, 1, 12

A basic account of FCT for a New Zealand audience.

Facilitated communication training is not an ideal solution to communication problems, but few DEAL clients present ideal problems. Despite its obvious limitations and disadvantages. FCT has enabled many of these clients to achieve goals previously thought to be impossible.

An account of the applicability of FCT to people with Down Syndrome.

It is regrettably common to find individuals with Down Syndrome who have not been given access to non-speech communication strategies, despite obvious speech and hand-writing impairments. When intervention is suggested the response is often negative, reflecting a belief that the individual has not got the cognitive skills necessary to use non-speech communication or that their current level of communication is “good enough for someone with Down Syndrome”. Both beliefs are mistaken...

A correction of that part of Calculator & Singer (1992) that draws on the distorted data of Cummins & Prior (1992)

Crossley, R., 1993, Literacy and Facilitated Communication Training, Communicating Together, 11, 2, 16-17

Emphasizes the importance of acquiring literacy skills.

In order to ensure that every individual with severe communication impairments has access to the most empowering communication strategies is is important that individuals with literacy skills are enabled to use and extend them, individuals without literacy skills are given opportunities to develop them, and individuals with literacy limitations are given access to communication strategies which do not depend on reading or spelling.

Responds to Shane, 1993, Facilitated or ‘Factitious’ Communication, and Hudson, 1993, Assessing ‘Carla’.

There have certainly been a number of studies that have failed to find validation, and there have been a number of positive studies. ... At issue is not just the numbers who have passed or failed tests. Just as important are the issues of whether the study subjects had in fact been in an FCT program, whether the assessments used were valid, what the results signify, and the use that is made of them.

Crossley, R., 1994, Facilitated Communication; an answer, The Skeptic, 14, 4, 53-55

A response to and rebuttal of Joseph, 1994.

Crossley, R., 1994, Finding the Source - but not turning off the light, Communication Outlook, 16, 4, 9-15

A response to and rebuttal of Bligh, Kupperman & Klco, 1994

Crossley, R., in press, Eventually We’ll Know; Facilitated communication training and esoteric phenomena, Australian Journal of Human Communication Disorders

Crossley, R., 1995, letter, Communication Outlook, Spring, 4

A response to and rebuttal of Bligh, Kupperman & Klco, 1994, Policy Statements Issued on Facilitated Communication,

Crossley, R., 1997, Remediation of communication problems through facilitated communication training; a case study, European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 32, 1, 61-69

Case study of speaking person with severe language disorder remediated by facilitation.

Sarah's... case does establish, however, that there do exist language disorders that are susceptible to remedy through touch. It is not an argument against the use of FCT that the function of touch has not been explained. The range of possible neurological dysfunctions in the human mind cannot be limited by any requirement to be immediately explicable by registered psychologists.

Crossley, R., 1997, Response to Commentaries, European Journal of Disorders of Communication, 32, 1, 83-88

Response to Adams, Dockrell & Sterling, Rosenbloom, and Derbyshire.

Heads I win, tails you lose! If a client using FC does not progress to independence, this is evidence that FC training does not work: if the client does become independent this constitutes evidence that it was not necessary. This is not a standard normally applied to other areas of therapeutic intervention...

A basic text. Gives history of DEAL Communication Centre, describes methods, sets out hand function impairments, and discusses validation.

Any individual whose speech requires augmentation and whose hand skills are not adequate for them to write, sign or type sufficiently well for them to achieve a level of expression matching their receptive language is a candidate for facilitated communication training. ... The ultimate goal for students is independence in accessing all their communication aids... As well as the obvious treatment questions the outcomes to date raise many issues worthy of further research: the relationship between written and spoken language, the relationship between speech impairments and hand skills, the nature of intellectual ability and disability, the assessment of intelligence and so on.

Brief mention. Discusses wider definition of ‘facilitation’, and notes FCT as one form of facilitating AAC communication.

In recent years, the practice of faciltated communication has been used primarily for persons with autism and has introduced a new facilitator role.

Transcript of an address to the Victorian Humanist Society.

Failure <of a communication assistant> to ... submit themself to ... an evaluation must be regarded as unethical.

A response to Biklen, 1990, Harvard Educational Review.

...on not one single occasion has a systematic investigation of assisted communication <sic> revealed consistent and valid evidence that such communications emanate from the client. Rather, all relevant investigations have revealed that in each case the assistant has, wittingly or unwittingly, been responsible for the recorded response.

I would very much appreciate any suggestions for additions to this bibliography. I can be reached by e-mail at cborthwick@vichealth.vic.gov.au.

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