THE SOUTH EAST ASIAN REVIEW, Vol. 1, No. 2, 139-158, February 1972
KING RAMA V of Thailand,(1) as noted statesman and reformer, needs little introduction. As an author and a personality, he is perhaps less well known, at least to those outside Thailand. It is the good fortune of succeeding generations of Thais to have easy access to voluminous records in the King's own hand containing detailed and forceful accounts of the state of officialdom, as well as more personal and domestic matters. For the benefit of those people to whom such are not readily available, I have attempted to abstract some points of interest from the vast array of existing correspondence, in the hopes that, despite His Majesty's oft-stated preference for remaining ' inkoknito ' or going about as a ' praivet ' individual, these will have something to contribute to the overall portrayal of an outstanding personality.
Two particular works have been chosen for this purpose, both of which deal with King Chulalongkorn's journeys to Europe. The choice is deliberate. Both these works are rounded and complete narratives in their own right, for one thing. For another, they reveal the King in a setting removed from, and therefore not obscured by, the awesome complexities and convolutions of bureaucratic procedures and personal relationships at home, thus throwing his personality into sharper relief. Again, the challenge of new surroundings may be assumed to lend a heightened awareness to his own perceptions. Lastly, the intriguing admixture of official, personal and domestic, of the momentous and the trivial, covering periods separated by a stretch of ten years at a significant time in the history of the Fifth Reign may be presumed to give good general coverage to a wide range of issues. Even within that narrow compass, it has been necessary arbitrarily to limit selection to only those items which would seem relevant to our theme. I have tried to make choices partly on the basis of subject matter - a difficult task in view of the strictly sequential narrative form of the original material - to see if in this way we cannot find clues as to which issues and events King Chulalongkorn himself considered significant, and partly on the basis of references, comments or implications which might be thought to shed some light on matters of interest to us from our vantage point of eighty years hence. These at any rate form the main categories.
The two works to be thus treated are 'Royal Writings concerning the Journey to Europe, A.D. 1897' (2) consisting of letters to his queen and regent, Queen Sri Pacharindra,(3) and the famous collection of letters to his daughter, the Princess Niphanophadol,(4) under the title 'Far from Home'.(5)
It would perhaps be appropriate to begin with that appealing passage which, in the space of a few brief and lyrical lines, testifies so movingly to King Chulalongkorn's fervent and touching concern for his country, thus setting the keynote for that vitally important enterprise which he is undertaking as a sojourner in an alien land, as it were at her behest and for her sake.
Thailand ! he thinks of her at once as foster-mother and spouse. They two have been husband and wife long since, many long years before he met his present queen, who is, heaven knows, dear enough to his heart. But however much he may long for his new wife, how much more must he not yearn for Siam herself, on whom he has relied for succour since his childhood, whose bed and board he has shared for nigh on thirty years. Is it not fitting then, that he should think of her even more than of his newer wife ? Sleeping or waking, with beating heart he thinks of her every dusk, every dawn.... (6)
We may quickly effect a descent to more practical levels. The King of Thailand has travelled in neighbouring countries more than once, and his experience leads him to devote some time in advance to a careful consideration of which matters, given the fleeting nature of his visit to Europe on this occasion, can most profitably be subjected to scrutiny for Thailand's future benefit. In broad strokes, he outlines those questions he thinks relevant. Seen through his eyes, what is life really like in Europe ? What does he perceive to be the source of its wealth, and of what does that wealth consist ? What about military strength and the ability to inflict damage on, or engage in conflict with, an enemy ? What constitutes amusement for its peoples ? He thinks it futile to try to find out about such internal matters as administration and governmental procedures unless (as indeed he happens to be) forearmed with prior knowledge. The King then proceeds to a dissection of the four main areas. For instance, one should try to have some knowledge of how people generally, from the highest to the least, make their living; one should become acquainted with their behaviour and their conduct, and know something about how they get along together; and one should look carefully into the connection between royalty, nobles and commoners. (Here the King sensibly forestalls a possible criticism by remarking that as he understands it, he can reasonably claim to a first-hand knowledge of the one, and to have had ample opportunity to observe the other. It is only a chance to make contact with the middle classes which is lacking.) (7)
Going on to speak of the other factors listed above, His Majesty is of the opinion that any attempted estimation of national wealth must necessarily be superficial, because of lack of time or opportunity for a closer scrutiny. Military strength, for the same reason, can only be roughly estimated and would be hard to pin down -and as for amusements, he ruefully remarks that he couldn't even direct anyone to a good play or a decent hotel. The only forms of entertainment with which he is familiar are the official ones arranged for his benefit.(8) Indeed, if benefits are to be reaped from this journey, they will be all on the side of the state and none of them personal.
As an illustration of his first point, King Chulalongkorn proceeds to a general and even-handed description of the royal houses of Europe under the headings he himself has set up, shrewdly summing up relative strengths and weaknesses.
In Italy for instance, he observes that royalty is in general well liked. King Humbert(9) is popular and gains the plaudits of the crowd wherever he goes. The King of Thailand, however, is of the opinion that the Italian people are undisciplined and over casual in their attitude to their sovereign. When the latter walks abroad, they do not hesitate to jostle and push. If he proceeds by carriage, they crowd around. Those who wish to present petitions may do so in person. All very unseemly, we are given to conclude. King Humbert himself is a kindly and likeable monarch however, even if not as astute as his attractive queen.(10)
The Emperor of Austria,(11) we are told, is knowledgeable and well versed in affairs of state, although not particularly acute. His subjects both revere and stand in awe of him, despite damaging rumours that he ill-treats his wife (she, King Chulalongkorn thinks, is slightly deranged anyway). He speaks little and to the point. It has been suggested that trouble is brewing, and that after his death, a Hungarian uprising could be imminent. Looking over the available heirs to the Austro-Hungarian succession with a practised eye, our King concludes that to be not improbable, especially when the situation is exacerbated by dissension within the royal ranks.(12) (He can speak with some authority on this subject, being no stranger to problems connected with succession.)
In Russia, the Emperor(13) is not one to stand on ceremony or hold himself aloof, yet wields an air of immense dignity, according to our royal informant. The Empress is perhaps rather easily abashed - or is it that she is overshadowed by her beautiful and talented mother-in-law, the Dowager Empress,(14) who embraces all around in the circle of her maternal warmth, and in whose affectionate approval King Chulalongkorn basks contentedly. He is not so carried away as to fail to observe his surroundings though, and notes that the people of Russia fear and venerate their royalty as much or more than do the people of Thailand. In general, royalty is held in high regard.
Sweden is quite another matter. The Swedish people are even more free and easy than the Italians, and there is a general air of republicanism abroad. The benevolence of the King of Sweden's(15) motives is, in King Chulalongkorn's view, to some extent discredited by the fact that he is under compulsion to observe absolute equality among all his subjects. He is hardly like a proper ruler at all, and the country's affairs are in consequent disorder. The shrewdest and most capable man at court is the Crown Prince,(16) who is also a cordial and friendly person who gets on well with all and sundry, an asset in Swedish society of the time. King Chulalongkorn's sharp eye recognizes at once however, that he is excessively thin and probably therefore not in that robust state of health desirable in an heir to the throne. Neighbouring-, Norway's situation is disturbing, with a republican movement gaining ground there, according to King Oscar, who considers the Norwegians in their turn to be unruly and disaffected. As for His Majesty of Thailand, he finds it hard to imagine any people anywhere being more undisciplined than the Swedes themselves, in particular the dangerously radical citizens of Stockholm. 'Thus', the King concludes his narrative, 'things stand concerning some of those matters about which, in my first instance, I said one could become cognisant as a result of a trip to Europe'.(17)
Evidence of the royal pragmatism, the statesman bent on exacting even the smallest concession which might benefit his country and help to preserve her status quo in the face of western expansion, is to be found on nearly every page. A sojourn at the court of the Russian Emperor is not only an opportunity to further a warm and spontaneous friendship begun some years earlier during a Russian visit to Bangkok, but, more importantly, to deliberate téte-a-téte with the Emperor, freed from the constraints of outside interference or the pressures of onlookers.(18) (The degree of his intimacy may in part be gauged from the reaction of others, as when Queen Louisa of Denmark engages him in a complex political discussion, during which she accuses him of failing to remind 'Niki'(19) that they were expecting him to send help to George of Greece. The King protests that indeed he spoke up as requested.(20)). It is gratifying to note that repercussions from those talks, based as they clearly were on mutual regard, were far-reaching and influential.(21) But at that stage, much still remained to be done in the way of obtaining confirmation of promises made at that meeting. However much reliance King Chulalongkorn places in the Czar as a man of his word, yet he is glad to have his impressions confirmed, as when the German Emperor affirms that the Russian Emperor is renowned for never speaking without prior consideration, and once having spoken, for never going back on his word-a man of deeds and swift actions. The words evidently spoken by the Czar, "At no time must the 'Independence' of Thailand be endangered or destroyed"(22) are as music in the cars of the Thai sovereign, but even such dulcet tones do not preclude a degree of scepticism which prevents him from placing too much reliance on the word of any one person in such a context. "Don't imagine", he admonishes his readers, "that others will be prepared to assume responsibility for us if it is not in their own best interests."(23) In talks with the German Emperor, it would appear that Germany might be willing to join with others in offering support for Thailand's independent status, but here again King Chulalongkorn maintains a cautious scepticism. Careful observation of the Emperor's attitudes, conduct and dispositions towards relevant issues leads him to believe that Germany is at best a shaky support. Her commitment to Thailand's cause goes no further, the King suspects, than her immediate desire to please Russia. Conversations with Prince Bismarck further indicate that even the attachment to Russia is in the nature of a temporary phenomenon.(24)
As a statesman, King Chulalongkorn's task is never done. He holds talks with the Prime Minister of England, Lord Salisbury and George Curzon, his Minister for Foreign Affairs, as well as with Prince Bismarck and Count Moravief. It is his slender hope that these influential names might be invoked should Thailand's independence be further threatened (this is in the wake of overt French aggression resulting in the loss of several Thai provinces, and hostile action by French gunboats in the Chao Phraya estuary), and that this might exert a restraining influence on those intent only on getting their own way. Perhaps even the use of armed force, if deemed appropriate, need not be discounted entirely.(25)
The political implications of a request by the King of the Belgians(26) (never a firm favourite at the best of times: the King of Thailand finds his appearance distasteful and his casual behaviour and coarse comments wholly inappropriate to his lofty rank)(27) to be granted a concession to build railways in Thailand, are seized upon immediately. It is in vain that King Leopold protests, with an awkward attempt at jocularity, that Belgium is in no position to threaten Thailand's sovereignty with gunboats when she doesn't even possess warships. King Chulalongkorn does not find it funny. His training and experience in assessing political consequences prompt him to take a wider and more cautious view. He is all too well aware that a trifling argument between two smaller countries can provide an excuse for the major powers to intervene, indeed an example of just such a contretemps has recently been under discussion, to wit the dispute between Greece and Turkey. Thailand could be in danger of being similarly embroiled. The danger in her immediate case would lie in the fact that any country with capital invested in such an enterprise would want to ensure its safety, and would not hesitate to secure the same by force if necessary.(28)
Scepticism remained to the fore, not unnaturally, during a tense and anxious visit to France. Worried and distressed, His Majesty is unable to relax or derive any enjoyment from his visit. Of course he is pleased to be welcomed by the President, as this is an unusual sign of regard. He remarks tartly however, that it doesn't take exceptional intelligence to understand that this is more a placatory gesture towards the Czar than a tribute to Thailand's increase in stature.(29) Talks between the two heads of state, despite apprehensions on the King's side, seem to have been reasonably cordial and frank. His Majesty is tactful and diplomatic in his approach to what he affects to understand as the French president's precarious position. The President, in his capacity as popular elected representative, is bound to do his best to satisfy the demands of a volatile and unrestrained people. Of course. It is obviously a relief to the good monarch however, to be able to use the name of the Emperor of Russia to some effect in keeping open the channels of diplomacy for his protege.(30) M. Faure responds with equal reserve expressing his relief to learn that Thailand is genuinely seeking friendly relations with France despite rumours to the contrary (sic !). A little later on, the King observes with some relief that the French press seems to be giving a fairly impartial account of Thailand's role in the gradual subsiding crisis. Indeed, he cannot discover any evidence among the French people generally of resentment towards Thailand. He thinks no better of them for this however, as he is sure it is simply because they are unaware of the true facts and in their temperamental way, go wherever they are led.(31) There is an amiable suggestion from the President at one stage that a royal prince should come to continue studies in France, as has happened in so many countries.
Dispersal of members of the Thai royal family throughout the courts of Europe for the furtherance of their studies is another of the King's farsighted stratagems. In particular, he wishes to enhance the present intimacy with Russia by this means, despite criticisms which he feels will inevitably arise on the grounds that Russia is an untamed and inaccessible place. These he anticipates to some extent by pointing out that as well as the difficulties imposed by an alien tongue and vast distances, sojourn at the court of Russia provides two major benefits. These are diplomatic ties of increasing intimacy and the patronage of a monarch who will be willing to lend more kindly assistance than any other crowned head in Europe.(32)
Conscious always of the need to impress the West with Thailand's sophistication, King Chulalongkorn shows frequent signs of vexation at the unbecoming conduct of some members of his entourage. Even more distressing is the behaviour of Thailand's accredited representatives abroad. Nobody is willing to accept responsibility (a failing in his inferiors which has dogged His Majesty's footsteps from the time he took up the reins of government). It is not merely the envoy's unhelpfulness which is at fault, but also his ignorance, his failure to pull his weight-which for fear of being found out leads him to take refuge in passivity - and the fact that when foreign governments fail to recognize Thai affairs as being of sufficient importance to warrant the sending of replies, he resorts only to inaction. ' Don't think anyone reads your despatches ' he writes to the Queen. 'You should know that whatever you send to this minister will only get tossed into the bureau or sent of to the celestial mansions. Don't expect any action to be taken!' How he wishes he could have men of integrity and experience to represent Thailand overseas - but then, in a small country like Thailand where manpower is scarce, if men such as those come abroad, who will manage affairs at home?(33)
Of course the foreigner abroad is equally a problem and very different from his counterpart in Europe. His behaviour can be doubly a problem because of the readiness of his home government to interpret criticism as a hostile act.(34) King Chulalongkorn has therefore done his practical best to ensure that the new German representative at least is acquainted with Thai expectations, by speaking to him in front of the Emperor of Germany in tones of gentle and tactful admonition.(35)
Indeed, the great powers themselves in some respects are not much better than their servants. He observed how they meet together in rivalry, jockeying for position like the sun and the moon, always trying to obstruct and criticize each other, and how when a small country like Thailand approaches a greater one, it is like a small star entering the orbit of the moon. But none of them had stopped to think that in regard to certain points, which the big powers imagined they had invented and proposed themselves, it was really Thailand who was the original instigator.(36)
His Majesty's opinions of European royalty having been given their place, we can next look at its impressions of him, as simply and artlessly related by the King himself. It was certainly not true to say in those days that '...heads of state are so numerous, so many of them nonentities, and they are so continuously on the move, that it is permissible to doubt whether their peregrinations have any effect at all...'(37) One is, rather, enormously impressed by the wholehearted acceptance accorded King Chulalongkorn by the crowned heads of Europe, who, if one might be permitted to mix a metaphor, took him to their bosoms in instant and delighted recognition that here was one of their own, to be warmly embraced and intimately entertained in courts and palaces from the Black Sea to the Baltic. Although the King never allows personal vanity to cloud an issue he does record with some pleasure a comment on his royal person attributed to the King of Italy. It would appear that King Humbert was amazed to find this oriental potentate from far-off Siam comporting himself as though he had moved in European court circles all his life, without a sign of apprehension, embarrassment or unseemly curiosity. On the contrary, he was at home everywhere and just like their own royalty. In addition, his gentle demeanour and winsome bearing endeared him to all, while his dignified mien yet bespoke a proper reserve.(38) It seems certain that the neat, dark figure impeccably clad in the appropriate attire for the occasion, must have brought a welcome touch of exotica to their social round. Chatting in lighter vein, we find him embroiled in a discussion as to the respective merits of black and blue eyes. Driven by his interlocutor, a devotee of the dark and romantic, King Chulalongkorn too is forced to admit for a preference for black eyes. However, he is quick to point out that dark-eyed beauty is by no means confined to Thailand, and cites the Queen of Italy as a shining example.
Friendliness is one thing, however, and familiarity another. His Majesty does not encourage the latter. He does not wish to be critical of the welcome accorded him by the King of Sweden, for instance, which is both hearty and kind, but the free and easy approach employed is repugnant to him. He much dislikes being seized by the arm and dragged, literally, from pillar to post until he feels as if he were being compelled to play a strenuous game of ' snake-swallow-your-tail'. Nonetheless, King Oscar continues to be friendly and effusive. After learning of a conversation between the Crown Prince (whom, as we know, King Chulalongkorn regarded as being more capable than his father) and the Thai King regarding the current dispute between Sweden and Norway, and hearing that the latter has suggested the possibility of learning from the Austro-Hungarian situation, he exclaims in mock dismay that someone from far distant Siam could be so well versed in local politics. In fact, the more he becomes acquainted with her King, the more he is coming to think that in gaining increasing familiarity with European affairs and profiting by her experiences, the Thais will soon come to outstrip Europe herself. King Chulalongkorn forbids such flattery. Such a thing is not in the foreseeable future, he says, and furthermore it must be remembered that learning from Europe is a two-sided process. The Thais can and do assimilate the bad along with the good, as for instance in their ready adoption of the European propensity for heavy drinking. (Appreciative mirth greets this sally).(39)
His Majesty needs all his energy and determination to carry him through six months of gruelling official appointments and engagements, social functions and sightseeing, yet he always manages to maintain an interest in what goes on around him. As he begins on his homeward way through Spain and Portugal, he is still relentlessly noting down his impressions. If it is bullfights that are under discussion, he is of the opinion that while the contestants in a fight might extract some pleasure or gain, the horses are only to be pitied. Indeed it is abundantly clear that information of every kind was meat and drink to the King, he could not live without it. He was constantly acquiring it, extending it, arranging and shifting it, ready for use whenever needed. Perhaps it is the fund of knowledge thus amassed which gives the Siamese monarch his cheerful and ready confidence in his own ability to cope with any situation. Equally, he is vexed and distressed by ill-digested or inadequate knowledge in others. It seems to be the very urgency of his desire to know, and to master the knowledge gained, which provides the driving energy and vigour which is so characteristic of him. Where official functions are tedious, social occasions irksome and diplomacy a burden, the garnering of information is by contrast a sheer delight. Even during this anxiety-ridden period when he had to bear almost alone the brunt of responsibility for ensuring Thailand's survival as a nation in the modern world, burdened by care and often sick for home, the irrepressible urge to learn brimmed and bubbled forth in joyous enthusiasm at new encounters and fresh situations.(40)
Ten years later, on his second trip to the Continent, although His Majesty is tired and not in good health, a much more relaxed atmosphere prevails. He is no longer burdened with the necessity to pursue delicate negotiations abroad. At home, he has done all that is humanly possible to ensure orderly progress. He is therefore free to browse over wider pastures in his search for information. The formidable results of his labours are set forth for his daughter's edification and pleasure in a series of letters.
On the journey over, approaching Aden, that arid outpost of Empire, he muses on the condition of the people, poor and miserable like the soil by which they live - like donkeys, they have to be whipped along.
Arrived at Suez, he recounts with dry amusement his version of England's perfidious part in the negotiations over the Canal - how from being the one country who apparently wanted no part in it, she came stealthily to acquire rights formerly held in Ismaelia, and at the same time contrived to unload the burdensome task of canal maintenance on to the Egyptian authorities, thus reaping maximum benefit at least trouble to herself, much to the discomfort of the other countries involved.(41) In Port Said, he feels the approach of Europe. It is to him an unmistakably foreign city, with a western atmosphere, more specifically a French one.(42)
In Naples it is the street urchins who capture his fancy. He wonders where they find the money to play their games of chance, and is saddened to learn that they are famed for their nimble-fingered thievery. At least, he thinks, their cheerful antics give much pleasure to the beholder. A devoted and indulgent parent, the King more than once reveals a concern for children.(43) Some of the few emotional passages in the account of his earlier journey to Europe are those which deal with this theme. For instance, when he is met in Venice by members of his family who are studying abroad, his eyes are brimming with tears and he doesn't know how to express his joy at this happy reunion. Again, when he receives news of a sick child, he is stricken with concern. '. . my heart withered and dropped, like fresh blooming flowers when scalding water is poured upon them'.(44) Another story, endearingly recounted in the pages of 'Far from Home' gives a further glimpse of a warm interest in and affection for children of whatever race or creed. His Majesty tells how, on a previous occasion while admiring a Paris church, they chanced on a baptismal procession. The baby's parents, evidently aware of the stranger's identity, ask if they might be permitted to include 'Chulalongkorn' among their little son's names, and further, if His Majesty would consent to be godfather. The King cheerfully agreed to both these propositions it seems, and when he returns to Paris ten years later with his own young son, Prince Uruphong, the latter is eager to meet his father's namesake, whom he knows must be about his own age. Sure enough, next day at the hotel, a little boy of about ten years old, accompanied by his mother, is waiting in the foyer with a big bunch of flowers which he shyly presents to His Majesty. His mother follows to explain that this is indeed the boy Chulalongkorn, much to Prince Uruphong's delight. The King hunts through his pockets and is disconcerted to find that he has only about one pound in cash. This lie duly bestows upon Master Chulalongkorn, and after embracing warmly, they go their several ways.(45)
There is indeed very little that escapes King Chulalongkorn's eagle eye. Observations on living conditions, the state of the nation, government, industry and high finance, history and the arts, religion and archaeology flow irrepressibly from the royal pen, side by side with reports of incidental encounters and individual idiosyncrasies which catch his attention.
In Italy, the distinctive characters of her cities impress him. Each seems like a separate country inhabited by its own race of people.(46) The people are unruly, and a police escort is necessary for his protection. It was an Italian, he reflects, who was responsible for the assassination of the Empress Elizabeth of Austria while in Switzerland. Even their own princes are not safe, because of this heterogeneous mixture of peoples. The country lacks unity, and the government is unstable and constantly changing. This instability he believes to be partly due to the presence of socialists and anarchists, who are constantly on the wait to inflict injury or harm and oppression in order to gain their selfish ends. Such political ideologies have no parallel in Thailand, in his opinion, even with the secret societies. The fanatical adherence they command makes them more like religions, and their devotees fear neither death nor imprisonment, indeed they court these things.(47) However, in the San Remo district where he goes at first to rest and recuperate, things are peaceful enough. He describes schools, roads and local administrative procedures with some approbation, so it is a surprise to learn that the mayor is a socialist, albeit of a mild persuasion. In all fairness the King has to admit, and does so cheerfully, that the government there is excellently run. He is intrigued to watch a May Day procession free from incident. Later, joining in the spirit of general camaraderie, he goes down to the local wine shop, where he treats the bystanders to a drink. With rueful humour he tells of the teasing he was subjected to later, when it was discovered that he had unwittingly stood drinks for members of the local Socialist party.(48)
Later, in Norway by this time, he enters into a discussion on the onerous nature of kingship in an egalitarian state, deprived of even a supporting aristocracy. If the King of Norway speaks with anyone, then he must speak with everyone. If he invites one, he must invite all. He must endeavour at all costs to avoid drawing adverse criticism. He may not even own an automobile lest it cause harm to or even frighten, so much as a single horse.(49) His Majesty also engages in conversation over earlier events which led to Norway's final estrangement from Sweden, and with his usual acumen, recognizes that there exists a fundamental incompatibility between the administrative practices and cultural traditions of the two countries which made eventual separation inevitable.(50) Still discussing the impact of egalitarianism, King Chulalongkorn cannot resist from speaking his mind. He understands that nowadays, investiture is considered socially divisive,(51) and points out that surely the main point of a decoration is that it is an internationally recognized courtesy. Whatever the merits of the case, people expect recognition, and if no decorations are available, then possibly some form of pecuniary reward may have to take its place, and how much more costly that would be ! A propos of this, the King learns that the order bestowed upon him during a previous visit no longer exists. He replies good-humouredly that it will have all the greater value on that account.(52)
Here is one head of state who is by no means convinced of the merits of the democratic system. He is quick to perceive that particularly when there is a single body consisting of elected members only, as in Norway, the group with a majority of one can carry out its aims without hindrance, whereas for the unfortunate minority, there is no way in the world for them to achieve theirs.(53) Independence can be said to be carried to a fault when one finds ministers refusing to don uniform lest it be interpreted as a sign of subservience to the crown!(54) Elected representatives can actually hinder the work of government,(55) and popular influence is far-reaching, extending even as far as local industrial operations. The latter (in which His Majesty has an interest) are criticized by the public on the grounds that they are responsible for removing certain essential chemicals from the atmosphere, which in turn impairs its water-retaining properties and causes excessive rainfall. The King is unimpressed by this argument, which one gathers he thought contrived, and points out that rainfall abroad is in any case unpredictable, as is foreign weather. Hence the latter's popularity as a subject of conversation. Also, the proclivities of mountainous lands towards stimulating rainfall are well known.(56)
Judging by his tone, King Chulalongkorn generally regards democratic practices overseas as fundamentally eccentric. Back in England again, this time staying at Windsor Castle as the guest of King Edward VII, His Thai Majesty has ample leisure to observe at first hand the curious habits of the English royal household. Compared to the rest of Europe, the English court permits an unusual degree of informality.
People are not required to adopt special postures in the presence of royalty. This relaxed atmosphere the King attributes to the need of succeeding Hanoverian monarchs to cast aside Germanic conventialism and actively seek popularity by rubbing shoulders with the people.(57) Since Queen Victoria's time, much time and energy have been spent in acquiring English attitudes. Besides the need to humour the people, King Chulalongkorn remarks on other features of the British system. One is the stability of the administration, which would continue to function even in the absence of a sovereign. In fact, the main function of the monarchy as seen through his eyes is to bring together the elected heads of the government and ensure that they govern in accordance with the popular will. An English king who obstructed the due processes of government could risk even assassination. His duties are to defer to the people's wishes, to greet everyone alike with impartial friendliness, to nod his assent when required and to refrain from active participation in government.(58) Impartiality and restraint are the keys to royal conduct. So far, the tone of comment has been one of mild sarcasm. This gives way to one of wry amusement, as the King tries to imagine what the outcome might be of trying out the English system in Thailand. He observes how, on the English side, everything proceeds from the bottom to the top instead of the other way round. Followers turn out to be leaders, inferiors superiors, and proposals originate at the bottom and filter up to the top. No senior official dares to take a step without consulting his junior. A commissioned officer may be instructed in his duties by a corporal. How truly astonishing that this does not result in indolence and sloth! Just the opposite to Thailand, where if the chief stops work then everything progressively grinds to a halt down through all ranks from the top to the bottom, and where work is only as good as its leader. Ruination would follow if Thailand were to try to imitate the English example!(59)
The profoundly democratic Swiss constitution, however, is described with rather more admiration. One gathers that King Chulalongkorn is struck by the orderliness of the Swiss regime and its admirable habit of deferring to old age and experience.(60) Nonetheless, however exceptional their government, it would be unlikely to be able to protect Switzerland from her enemies were it not for the accident of geography which has endowed her so liberally with mountains. That is the only reason why Switzerland can maintain her sovereignty thus encircled by bigger countries.(61) Looking at living conditions in northern Scandinavia, that region of waterfalls and mountains, the King is deeply impressed by the frugal and industrious habits of the peoples of the northern seaboards. He speaks with admiration of their ready acceptance of the difficulties imposed by the bleakness of the areas where they eke out a living,(62) and how they struggle to exact what is beneficial from their surroundings, not evading hardship but striving always to wrest some advantage from the inhospitable soil.(63) Incidentally, he never hears Norwegians saying 'Wait until the rain stops', and raincoats are on sale at every street corner.
In the far south of Europe, he has already noticed hardship of a different kind on some arid stretches of the Mediterranean coast, where it is also hard to see how people manage to make a living. There seems to be a total absence of farinaceous crops, which means importing basic foodstuffs in a bad season. Many people emigrate to the United States, and the abandoned olive groves fall into disrepair.(64)
His Majesty also has views on commerce and trade. He goes to see the Rugen hydroelectric scheme and is impressed. Large scale industry, he reflects, is solely dependent on money for its operation, and without this essential commodity, nothing could be achieved. How otherwise could the costly burdens of technical maintenance, staff quarters and labour force be borne ? He has no patience with the popular suggestion that natural scenery is being despoiled to benefit a single individual. A large scale operation will eventually benefit large numbers of people. In any case, what does Norway gain from her plethora of waterfalls except an odd tourist or two ? There is little in a month or two of tourism a year that would be of much profit to the mass of the people, whereas money invested benefits the whole country. Such things as boulders and waterfalls, formerly worthless, are now commodities with a cash value.(65) It is really absurd of the Norwegians to be so jealous of foreign capital, in his opinion, when the profits from such ventures will accrue to the country at large. More currency will circulate more freely, and because the wealthiest banks act as guarantors,(66) there is no danger of a financial collapse. For quite different reasons, he cites the citizens of Milan as having an equally shaky grasp of sound commercial principles, when they refuse to buy their own product - in their case, it is silk - unless in the meantime it has been sent out to France for dyeing and then reimported.(67)
His Majesty takes the liveliest interest in all kinds of cultivation, from rose growing(68) to the rotation of crops(69) and new varieties of fruit trees.(70) He is impressed by the usefulness of grass as a crop as the hay can be harvested several times a year.(71) He is at once impressed and a little pessimistic about a new piece of legislation in Norway designed to save their remaining forests from destruction. He has observed that the Norwegians rely almost solely on wood for fuel,(72) their forests are already devastated, and the new laws may have come too late to save them. In the interests of the Thai timber trade, however, great gain might be had from the promulgation of a similar law, for the preservation of the still relatively untouched forests of Siam.(73)
Technical matters are of no less interest to the King. He describes in detail the operations of a Norwegian nitrogen fertilizer company.(74) In growing excitement, he goes on to describe the wonders of the new system of wireless telegraphy, after a visit to a new receiving and transmitting station outside Berlin. Here, in addition to technical detail, he recounts with interest the tale of the stormy beginnings of this great technological achievement, and how the antagonism of the Marconi company towards a possible rival in Count Argo of Germany later led tragically to the loss of a vessel in distress off the American coast owing to the former's refusal to decipher a message sent on the different wavelength favoured by Germany.(75) (His Majesty is aware, however, that he has heard only one side of the matter).
In lighter vein, he recounts a variety of trivia. The vagaries of Italian level crossings, for instance, kept closed for hours at a time waiting for a train to come along but willing to open at any moment to those who knew the secret of tapping on the wall to attract the attention of the woman attendant, usually a formidable female in porter's cap and long, flowing but rather soiled robe, complete with police whistle;(76) or the propensity of the Mediterranean cart driver to slumber - "...they grow smarter every day. Not only do they sleep flat on their backs in the middle of their carts, but their horses wander all over the road at will ... blissfully certain that motor cars won't collide with them."(77) French culinary habits earn his warmest praise. The English cook tasteless food then pour salt all over it, German food is bland and oily, but the French, like the Thais, understand that good food is the result of careful preparation. Why, even their salad dressing has a delicious sharp flavour and doesn't spoil the crispness of the vegetables. In Paris, they know the worth of a good restauranteur and reward him with a suitably high salary.(78) Insipid flavours creep into many walks of western life in the King's opinion. Their rain is dreary, their conflagrations unexciting, their thunder mute.(79) Where art was concerned, King Chulalongkorn was something of a philistine. On viewing an exhibition of modern painting, he remarks tartly that it resembles nothing so much as a heap of coloured macaroni slung at random. What they choose to call 'art' is singularly lacking in artistry. One could say neither that it was true to life nor that it was beautiful, only that there is ten times more of it than there used to be. Of course His Majesty does not wish to appear critical, but he is not allowed to remain silent, as failure to comment would be interpreted inability to appreciate.(80) It is strange, he muses, that one never sees works such as these hanging in people's homes. Having been told that the items on exhibition are not intended for such domestic purposes, the King is puzzled. What would attract the purchaser, other than the prospect of decorating his home ? When King Chulalongkorn discovers that the particular value of these pieces lies in the fact that they are award winners, he is quite dumbfounded. He cannot bring himself to believe that any genuine art expert could seriously consider such works worthy of a prize. Nowadays, it seems, artists who could never hope to emulate the old style of art can study instead the new, easy way, and boast that they don't paint pictures to adorn or beautify but in order to trick committees into giving them prizes!(81)
Opera as an art form has a greater appeal, and King Chulalongkorn attends a number of performances. He is intrigued by the mechanics of foreign voice production, and the control which enables singers to reproduce sounds suggesting weeping, anger or incoherence. He is interested to see how the actors' attitudes are really dramatized representations of ordinary behaviour, and concludes this to be the result of painstaking and accurate observation of real life.(82) He notes that having singing parts confined to certain voice ranges can create problems. One has to find a suitable voice, and then make sure its owner is suited to the role.(83)
The King believes the slow and deliberate movements which are characteristic of Thai drama to be repugnant to the foreigner. Equally, certain types of foreign performances seem coarse and indelicate to the Thai taste, particularly those which feature short skirts, expanses of exposed flesh and an abundance of leaping around like monkeys. However, Thai drama is bound by convention to conform to a strict plan, and lacks the freedom commanded by foreign theatricals.(84)
There is an account of a performance by Isadora Duncan which hardly rates as enthusiastic. His Majesty tolerates her antics without, on his own admission, really understanding what she is trying to convey by her aping of the obvious. He supposes she believes herself to be a follower of the ancient Greek dramatic style, whereas she is really following her own imaginings of how it might have been. He appreciates though, that she is attempting to recreate the Greek emphasis on health through bodily exercise, fresh air and light, loose clothing.(85)
Christian beliefs are on several occasions the subject of his musings. During his first trip to Europe, his first sight of Mount Sinai sets him to considering the archaic nature of these as found in the Christians' Bible. Their creation story can only be based on defective interpretation of surrounding phenomena in the light of their imperfect knowledge and living memory span. The notion that they actually met and spoke with their God must have arisen from the strength of their prior conviction that God really existed. Of course, they believed their use of falsehood with the intention of inducing good behaviour to be justified, just as the Thais might justify persuading a child to eschew mischief with threats of the 'tukkae'.(86) Neither need be condemned as lies in such a context. However, the usefulness of such concepts depends on the state of knowledge of the recipient. They will become outmoded once people come to know the true facts.(87)
Christian accusations of idolatry levelled at Buddhism evidently rankle. During his next journey to Europe, King Chulalongkorn purchases some religious trinkets outside the Church of the Sacred Heart at Montmartre, which leads him to ponder further on this matter. If Thais trade in sacred images, he argues, then so do the Roman Catholics, and to a greater extent. They peddle everything, from universal panaceas to rosary beads. Furthermore, he has observed foreigners themselves buying images of the Buddha in the marketplace, to keep just for looking at or to show how idolatrous the Thais are. Now when he makes some small purchases of a religious nature, he does it with no thought of denigration in mind, but out of interest. On the same occasion, watching people proceeding to the confessional, he adds his reflections on this practice. He takes a slightly cynical view of the rite of penance as he observes it. It is not done, he says, in order to admonish or advise restraint and care in future, because after all, sins can be banished by forgiveness in the here-and-now, by giving some money to the priest or undertaking to go to church over and over again. No doubt the original intent was to restore human nature, but in the end, it all becomes a matter of money.(88)
In contrast to such scepticism, a romantic side of King Chulalongkorn's nature is revealed in the eager interest he takes in ancient historical sites. He gives the liveliest and most detailed accounts of the various archaeological excavations lie is taken to see, beginning with the burial grounds of the Vikings, those robbers and plunderers who so admirably in the long run became landed proprietors of wealth and standing. He exclaims with wonder at how beautifully the Norwegians have restored the ancient craft, inserting new pieces only where absolutely necessary. How amazingly the clay soil has preserved the remains!(89)
Excitement and enthusiasm shine through the pages that tell of the royal visit to the remains of a Roman encampment and fortifications at Saalberg, the history of which traces back to the 1st century A.D. Lovingly, he notes the details of the still visible testimony to events of another age: the great wall, for instance, which once protected the areas of the south from northern marauders; the camp site where traces of military occupation could be discerned in the northern part, close to where an enemy incursion might have been expected, while in the more protected southern half, the remains of ancient transport and supply divisions could be seen; the battlements, originally earthen ramparts, later replaced by wooden palisades and finally by stonework which, oddly, reverted to the designs of the original clay.(90) He highly commends the orderly arrangement of excavated objects in the museum, where clay vessels, iron implements and other objects are on display. His Majesty is at pains to point out that in the realm of archaeology, the greatest care must be taken to correlate material evidence with known facts. It is no use producing artefacts from a Roman camp-site if such things are not known to have been in use in Roman times.(91) The King dreams of excavating clues to a bygone era from Thailand's ancient cities, such as Kamphaeng Phet. He has already made beginnings in a small way. To dig, literally, for information hidden under the soil, to bring to light its evidence and assess it correctly and thus gain new perspectives on history, to learn of a land's spiritual heritage from its ancient sagas and legends and to link all together in a pattern of history, such things as these, he tells his daughter, '...are what please Papa very best of all.'(92) Indeed, one cannot fail to be struck by the fact that what gave King Chulalongkorn greatest pleasure during the elaborate birthday celebrations arranged in his honour-which included naming a mineral spring after him - was the reading out, by the professor in charge of the Saalberg excavations, of a telegram of greetings from the Emperor of Germany, which in particular thanked the King for his part in subscribing funds for the continuance of that enterprise.(93)
The King does not doubt that his daughter will be every whit as interested as he in the fascinating history of the Frankish Empire, especially as it was these very people who gave rise to the Thai word 'farang'. He goes on to explain how in early times in India, the word 'farangkhi' was in common use, and how on its being brought to Thailand, it was adopted into the language of speakers who could not be bothered with the final syllable, which in due course was dropped. It should be noted, he adds, that this word did not come, as was widely and quite mistakenly believed, from the word ' francais' which the Thais translated as 'farangset'.(94) Exactitude is clearly something to which His Majesty attaches great value, as is evidenced by the trouble he is always prepared to take over collecting accurate data from every available source on any subject.
In more pensive vein, we find the King pondering the movement of history. Looking at the modern world, he observes some degree of degeneration in certain aspects. Present day Italians, for example, seem to him to be degenerate versions of their Roman ancestors, while the modern Ceylonese are certainly not comparable to the figures who loom so large in the pages of the Mahavamsa (with which latter work, incidentally, he took care to acquaint himself before arriving in Sri Lanka for the first time). When a people reaches its maximum point of progress, retrogression must inevitably follow. Take languages; these, rich and full to start with, die out in time, and their place is taken by decadent local tongues. See how Latin and Sanskrit have given way to modern Italian and Magadhi.(95)
Reflecting on the spread of technology, he is a little saddened. True, the coming of steam and electricity has made monumental building easier and more widespread, but it was the old style, achieved at the cost of so much thought and endeavour, which showed the greater artistry.(96)
The picture thus painstakingly depicted is still far from complete, but it is enough to give us some idea of the personality behind the royal correspondence. Through his own words and ideas, Chulalongkorn of Thailand emerges, brusque, alert, authoritative and charming, with a lively warmth of manner and refreshingly wide horizons. Cultivated, urbane and articulate, this royal diarist captivates our minds with his careful and sensitive impressions. He endears himself through his foibles and disarms us with his unexpected humility. In his own markedly individual and original way, he is conversant with an exceptionally extensive range of subjects, of which he writes in a taut and expressive style, delightfully free from affectation or vanity. It is his own insistence that the reader remembers that what he relates are merely his own opinions of particular scenes and events, based on personal observation, and in no way definitive or generally applicable.(97) This can only be our gain. His Majesty's observations and comments on matters of general interest, while not perhaps in themselves particularly unconventional, are enlivened by unusual hypotheses and surprising perspectives. This would appear to be partly because he brings to the situations which confront him in Europe a mind uncluttered by the preconceptions we have come to expect, and perceptions honed by quite another milieu. His reactions to people and events were doubtless often predictable, but his interpretations thereof, refracted through the prisms of his own unique brand of logic, were singular, surprising and often profound.
Where matters of state were concerned, his attitudes were more generally in line with current European thinking. A long and intimate experience of administering a government virtually single-handed, of dealing with incompetent officials, refractory foreigners and disaffected nobles, and of trying to build from all these improbable components a stable and united Thailand capable of defending herself against encroachment from the west, equipped King Chulalongkorn with a set of preconceptions admirably suited to the task of outfacing western governments and beating them at their own manoeuvres. Because he was so knowledgeable, and practised, his apprehensions were shrewd, fast and accurate, making him a person to be reckoned with. This much is clear from the attitudes of the European statesmen themselves, in their dealings with this astute and sensible monarch.
At the close of ' Far from Home', there occurs a passage of unusual strength and lyric beauty. With his strong sense of the inevitable processes of history, King Chulalongkorn, in a sweeping and prophetic vision, describes the shape of coming years in the fitful light of past events. Therein, we may note well, he discerns at once the fundamental nature of the problem. In his opinion, neither population expansion nor lack of living space in itself is seen to constitute the main point at issue, but rather a natural decline in the land's capacity to sustain its people coinciding with a dramatic upsurge in technical progress. This, given the naturally vigorous and energetic nature of Europe's inhabitants, can only result in frustration and discontent. It is this restless dissatisfaction, the King believes, exacerbated by fears of real deprivation, which provides the rationale and the motive power that sends European to compete for trade and resources in the farthest corners of the earth. This being so, for those distant lands, passive possession constitutes the worst kind of danger, and rightly so. Those who wish to hold what they have must assume responsibility for their own shortcomings and do all in their power to remedy them if they do not wish to be overtaken by events.
His Majesty begins by describing the gradual depletion of Western resources.
'People like to ask, how do I see Europe. Well, there are many answers to that question, according to one's inclinations and interests. I take a broad view. I see Europe, in regard to her land, as impoverished and exhausted; speaking of her meadows and gardens, her orchards, pastures and forests, these have been cultivated to their full extent already and there isn't so much as a cubit, rod, pole or perch available for further expansion, apart from those barren habitations bestrewn with boulders, pebbles and refuse where truly nothing can be done. Therefore, Europe is constrained to change to other things for her subsistence...
'As to those mineral ores which can be employed to advantage, such as coal, not a single place is left which someone doesn't know of; not a single place remains where a beginning on work has not been made; all have been appropriated. Although indeed there is still much left, there is a time when it must all come to an end, and no matter how many thousands of years hence the point of exhaustion may lie... that is something they don't consider...
Later generations of elders liked to say of Europe that it was like China, until, as children, it rather made us understand that there, people rushed innumerably about like ants carrying their eggs. Certainly, there are a great many people, but there is a lot of room left too. People, however, must eat. Now, when all the places which yield flourishing harvests for their sustenance have been fully utilized, and still the newborn increase in number, then the land will not suffice to provide for those new human lives ... thus, they must count on expanding their trade, seeking the produce of other countries to import for foodstuffs, or looking for wealth overseas with which to buy supplies of food.
There is not a sufficient livelihood for the foreigner, even taking into account America's ready response. They have wrangled over the possession of Africa till it is almost all disposed of; in Australia all is sated with their occupations; the greater part of Asia gives way to change. Europe is spent and her people must disperse. People will flock to wherever empty space abounds, because it is the nature of this world of ours that none is ready to succumb easily-and it's not merely that it is enough not to have to perish, people also want generally to gain the maximum advantage and to see that it is indefinitely prolonged and secured. Such are the aspirations of humanity...
It is natural that those who possess much knowledge, many ideas, great diligence and extensive wealth will probably seek profit with greater facility than those who are not thus endowed. Even if already the possessors, yet having but little knowledge, feeble ideas, puny endeavours and deficient monetary reserves, on that account we would be compelled to forfeit our lands to those who are equipped with those four kinds of strength...
And there is still another thing which is on the side of progress for Europe, that is her skill, initiative and industry in harnessing the elements for her benefit, using them as tools effectively to aid in producing results.
It is the most astonishing thing-knowledge of how to make effective use of crops and vegetation and the mineral resources of the world probably began to be acquired by mankind from about 6,000 years ago.
Though having undergone periods of decadence and forgetfulness, by the time of our present age this knowledge has not only been recollected but greatly expanded. With this knowledge as the basis, ideas which arise in amplification can then put forth shoots until all possible ways of doing a thing have finally been exhausted. Like knowing how to make use of steam. Steam used to be applied to absolutely every kind of contraption once upon a time, till now it's become electrical power. Electricity can probably be used for everything too ... but nobody can guess what its ultimate effects will be, or at what point it will eventually give out, or what better thing than electricity might arise in future times. Who can foresee ?
... Let me briefly recapitulate only this much. Europe's lands may be exhausted but her knowledge is not merely reaching out to prosperity, it is pursuing it by leaps and bounds which are very hard to emulate...'
As Prince Damrongrachanuphap remarks in his explanatory preface, works such as these ' demand our absorption to the total exclusion of boredom'. We turn the last pages regretfully, emerging a little bemused from that other world, a glimpse of which, through the medium of His Majesty's facile and graceful pen, we have been privileged to catch.
1) phra bat somdet phra chunla chom klao chao yu hua, more generally known in the West by the name he bore prior to his ascension to the throne, chulalongkon or Chulalongkorn, Rama V being an abbreviated form of the dynastic title, phra ramathibodi sri sinthon maha chulalongkon etc.
2) chunla chom klao, chao yu hua, phra bat sonidet phra: phra racha hat lekha sadet praphat yurop pho so 2440 phra nakhon khuru sapha 2505 (Its nangsul chut phasa thai nos. 307, 308) Hereafter referred to as PRHL SPY
3) somdet phra sri pacharinthara boroma rachini nat.
4) somdet phra luk ya thoe chao fa niphanophadon.
5) chunla chom klao, chao yu hua, phra bat somdet phra: phra racha niphon klal ban phra nakhon prae pittaya 2508 Hereafter referred to as KBl and KB2.
6) PRHL SPY, p. 352.
7) PRHL SPY, p. Z56-7.
8) Ibid., p. 287.
9) Humbert, son of King Victor Emmanuel II
10) PRHL SPY, p. 288.
11) Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria and Hungary.
12) PRHL SPY p. 290.
13) Emperor Nicholas 11.
14) Dowager Empress Marie Feodorovna.
15) King Oscar 11 of Sweden and Norway.
16) Crown Prince Gustav.
17) PRHL SPY, p. 293.
18) PRBL SPY, P. 266-7.
19) Nicholas II of Russia.
20) Ibid., p. 299.
21) Ibid., p. 260.
22) Ibid., p. 328.
23) PRHL SPY, p. 325
24) Ibid., p. 328
25) Ibid, p. 324-5
26) Leopold II of Belgium
27) PRHL SPY, p. 374
28) Ibid., p. 333
29) Ibid., p. 334
30) PRHL SPY, p. 340
31) Ibid., p. 339
32) Ibid., p. 348. This practice was already attracting notice from even farther afield. An enthusiastic if slightly confused Chinese statesman of the day has written thus the wonderfully progressive King of Siam sent the Crown Prince abroad to study navigation. When the King went to Europe, he was greeted by none other than the Prince, who, his studies completed, had navigated a steam ship through the Red Sea to meet him.
33) PRHL SPY, p. 342. He does give credit where it is due, however, as when he commends one official with a bucolic background for his ability to record in intelligent detail any matter relating to agriculture, even though this is offset by a commensurate inability to cope with ordinary official correspondence, or to assume authority.
34) Ibid., p. 330.
35) Ibid., p. 327.
36) PRHL SPY, p. 340.
37) Petrie, Sir Charles
38) PRHL SPY, p. 252.
39) PRHL SPY, p. 283-4.
40) Our impressions are confirmed by a delightful reference in the English weekly, 'Punch, or the London Charivari ' of 14 August, 1897, in the column ' Essence of Parliament', which has this to say: 'Of all the monarchs I have ever met. . the King of Siam is by far the merriest '. The small and dapper royal personage is compared to a sparrow pecking corn. 'What he pecked was information; wanted to know everything and all about everybody... Wonderfully bright face; bubbles of humour always breaking through his eyes '
41 KBI, p. 156.
42) Ibid., p. 159.
43) Ibid., P. 125.
44) PRHL SPY, p. 247.
45) KB1, p. 459
46) Ibid, p. 446
47) Ibid, p. 468
48) Ibid., p. 299
49) KB2, p. 48.
50) Ibid., p. 49.
51) Ibid., p. 63
52) Ibid., p. 64
53) Ibid., p. 245.
54) Ibid., p. 246.
55) Ibid., p. 292. In the light of King Chulalongkorn's known views on the subject, this could be taken also as a comment on the continued need for separation of executive and legislature. In those days, it was not so well known.
56) KB2, p. 326.
57) KB1, p. 718.
58) Ibid., p. 740.
59) KB1, p. 46.
60) KB2, p, 682.
61) KB2, p, 686.
62) KB2, p. 130.
63) Ibid., p. 128.
64) KBI, p. 291.
65) KB2, p. 133.
66) Ibid., p. 332.
67) KB1, p. 465
68) Ibid., p. 383.
69) Ibid., p. 532.
70) Ibid.
71) KB2, p. 193.
72) Ibid., p. 209
73) KB2, p. 236
74) Ibid., p. 284
75) KB2, p. 362.
76) KB1, p. 355
77) Ibid., p. 288.
78) KB2, P. 641.
79) 'Last night, the thunder called out in Thai, with a loud reverberating crashí KBI, p. 590.
80) KBI, p. 388.
81) KBI, p. 590.
82) Ibid., p. 397.
83) Ibid., p. 461.
84) KB2, p. 451.
85) KBI, p. 609.
86) An ugly but harmless large house lizard.
87) PRHL SPY, p. 102.
88) KB2, p. 457.
89) KB2, p. 54.
90) Ibid., p. 532.
91) KB2, p. 546.
92) KB2, p. 547.
93) Ibid., p. 657.
94) Ibid., p. 544.
95) KB2, p. 326.
96) Ibid., p. 324.
97) KB1, p. 300