The text presented here is not precisely as published by OUP, but modifications are minor. Illustrations are another matter. Where images used in the original book were not my copyright, I have in most cases been able to substitute links to coloured images on the web.

When this text was submitted as part of a PhD thesis in 1996, the Notes were greatly extended. Most readers may prefer to ignore them. They have been collected at the end of each chapter, with internal links leading to them and back to the text. They are a mixture of: simple page references; additional examples or quotations to justify generalisations; and some afterthoughts.

Project planning.

Many readers will already be familiar with the aphorism 'Form follows Function'. Anyone can identify structures according to their function as bridges, dams, sports arenas, power stations, hospitals, flats or silos; even though each category embraces very different structural systems. However, it is interesting to consider in just what ways functional requirements determine the setting for the art of the structural engineer.

Taken in their broadest sense they are responsible for the initial definition of his task. As a simple example, the post-war demand for mass housing and the desire of the business community to crowd into prestige locations in city centres has led the engineer to the design of ever taller buildings. Now a revulsion against high-rise accommodation for low-income families is leading to a changed demand in this field.

The overall planning of major civil engineering schemes such as hydroelectric power projects and highways is beyond the scope of this book. Much information is available in the relevant literature, but a great deal more is unfortunately retained within the specialist organizations responsible for this type of work. With regard to habitable buildings the projects are more self-contained and the information is more public.

Naturally, no design engineer and in particular no student can be expected to have a comprehensive knowledge of such matters. However, when he joins a specialist organization, he will have ready access to the relevant planning information, while the planning of all types of buildings such as theatres, office buildings, schools and factories, is discussed in a large number of readable books. It would thus take only a few days to obtain a general impression of the chief factors which influence the planning of the particular type with which he is concerned at the time. The purpose of this Chapter is, therefore, to introduce the topic and emphasize its importance with a few brief examples, rather than attempt a comprehensive treatment.

The structural engineer should know something about functional planning for two reasons. First he should take an intelligent interest in what is going on around him during the design process, no matter how indirect its influence on his work, or what degree of control he has over the resulting demands on him. Secondly, if he finds these demands difficult or expensive to satisfy he will be able to make constructive suggestions which lead to an improved structural form without too much impairing the function. Otherwise, unless the planner has some knowledge of structural design, there may ensue an aimless and lengthy process of counter-proposal and rejection.

Sources

As the authors of the Architect's Journal 'Design Guide to Theatre Buildings' (1967) point out, nobody can design (or plan) a complex building straight from a text book. Every combination of clients and users is different and operates in a unique environment, so that lengthy consultations are necessary to determine requirements and ensure maximum satisfaction (or perhaps minimum dissatisfaction, since every solution must be a compromise). However, such texts are ample for the engineer to obtain an intelligent idea of the various factors involved in the different functional types and the conventional methods of handling them.

The available sources fall into three categories. Books in the first category deal with the general principles of planning for the building type and usually end with detailed descriptions of completed buildings (e.g. Pevsner, 1976). Books in the second category consist purely of descriptions, usually plans, sections and photographs of typical buildings, without any real explanation of the principles behind their design, or of the particular factors operating in each case to make one different from the next. [Note 1.] Working on the old principle that the best way to start a design is to find out what solutions other people have adopted in the past, this is a reasonably useful resource, but it leaves the reader wondering just what prompted the apparent idiosyncrasies of each design. In the third category is the handbook which sets out useful information such as the amount of room required by a human being to perform various functions, or the turning radius of standard vehicles. [Note 2.] Under this heading we may also include the building regulations published by local authorities.

Naturally functional requirements change with the passage of time. There might be developments in the techniques of production used within factories or in the educational principles applied in schools. However, the types of books mentioned above are adequate to illustrate the sort of considerations which must exercize the planner.

Planning must of course, take place within the constraints imposed by government. While regulations concerning zoning and environmental impact may affect the entire project, the form of the building may be governed by rules regarding admission of light to city streets and adjacent buildings, height limits, preservation of sight lines, and provision of open space.

Effects of functional requirements on individual structures

Apart from determining in this way the type of structure which the engineer is asked to provide, functional requirements play a large part in determining its shape, the extent and location of surfaces which must be provided, the location of required points of support, the magnitude of the loads, and the necessary composition of internal space. These factors in turn often determine the types of structural action that can be employed, the spans of beams and slabs, the lengths and location of columns and the nature of enveloping surfaces.

The primary purpose of all structures is to carry load, even if it is only their own weight. In some cases the load is applied at discrete points, and a skeletal structure is appropriate, as in the case of electricity pylons. More often, as in containers such as silos, bunkers, and tanks the load is widespread. Sometimes its position is variable, as in bridges and suspended floors. Such widespread and movable loads require the provision of continous surfaces. In crane gantries the need is to provide continous lines of support in the form of two parallel rails. Thus the load-support function often has a direct effect upon the form of the structure.

The object of many structures is also to provide shelter from wind, rain and snow and from cold and heat. This necessitates enclosing surfaces for the entire building. Requirements such as privacy, sound insulation, the recognition of organizational relationships and domestic arrangements demand internal partitioning. As a result of the energy crisis, arrangements to control the ingress and egress of heat and light and to provide for storage and re-cycling of energy have assumed increasing importance.

These factors define both the loads that will be imposed on the structure, and to some extent, the means by which they may be resisted. The form suggested by functional requirements may sometimes assist the engineer, as in the case of apartments where the closely-spaced partitions may provide more strength than the structural engineer requires, and may sometimes present him with a challenge as in the case of the wide-span office building.

Spatial planning

It is worth considering the multi-storey building in more detail as an example of the influence of spatial planning on the work of the structural engineering. The trend in the allocation of space within office buildings at present is to allow as much flexibility as possible to the tenant. Large clear spans typically not less than 8m are required in the structural system, so that lightweight partitions may be installed between offices to suit the tenant's needs. Such buildings (Fig. 5.1a) often consist only of a central core containing lifts, stair wells and toilets, and the outer structural skin. Floor beams span from core to skin, leaving each floor completely free of internal columns. In the case of very tall buildings designers have employed the skin to act as a box-section vertical cantilever in resisting lateral loads.

Fig. 5.1.
Typical plans of (a) high-rise office block and (b) hostel-type accommodation. [Abstracted for web version from plans of the CBS HQ, New York in Saarinen (1968) and a nurses hostel in Zürich in Aregger and Glaus, Highrise building and urban design, Praeger, NY, 1967.]

On the other hand residential buildings; flats and particularly hostel-type accommodation, require a large number of internal walls and there is less need for flexibility. Furthermore, the layout can be repeated on each floor so that the internal walls may rise the full height of the building and provide an excellent means of transmitting loads to the ground (Fig. 5.1b.)The use of heavy, load-bearing walls ties in well with the requirement for sound-proofing between adjacent flats or rooms. Floor spans are small and there is not the same pressure to try to reconcile strength and lightness as in the floors of an office building. Such a structure may thus be built in load-bearing brickwork to a height of thirteen storeys: an entirely different proposition from the uncluttered office block. [Note 3.]

Quite prosaic functional requirements may govern the spacing of columns. In the Menzies building at Monash University in Melbourne, the rooms on the north side of the building (Fig. 5.2) were planned for senior staff and were therefore larger than the rooms on the opposite side which were planned for tutors. The first storey columns are spaced 20 feet apart, so in the facade above, the architects inserted four windows on the north side, giving a spacing for the intermediate columns of 5 feet, while on the south side they inserted five windows giving a column spacing of 4 feet. Internal cross-walls must of course, be located on column lines so that room widths are in multiples of five feet on the north side and four on the south.

Fig. 5.2 [modified for web version.] Menzies Building, Monash University. Part plan of typical floor.
See also photo of north facade.

Similar limits are placed on column spacing (and consequently floor and roof spans) by the required width of car spaces in multi-storey car parks and by optimum aisle widths and production line dimensions in factories. If a multi-storey building has a basement car-park, this often determines column spacing throughout the entire height of the building. There are accounts of the column spacing in multi-storey office buildings being chosen to suit the size of standard fluorescent light fittings and even the dimensions of standard office furniture.

Another common functional requirement is the provision of large open spaces at ground floor level in multi-storey buildings. These may serve as showrooms, large shops or grandiose entrance halls. In some cases a clear space is required under the building so that it offers no obstruction to the vista in a plaza or green space. This requires a complete break in the structural system from closely spaced columns or load-bearing walls to a few tall widely spaced columns. Not only does this demand large-span transfer beams carrying very heavy loads, but it reduces the number of members available for resisting lateral forces and providing stability at just the point where these problems are most severe (Fig. 10.21). [Note 4.]

One of the most important aspects of planning is provision for the circulation of cars, products and people. This governs the grouping and to some extent the sizing of spaces - rooms, corridors, stairwells and foyers. Hospitals present a particularly complex problem in functional planning (Gero, 1977; Tregenza, 1976). An example of a circulation diagram is given in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3.   Omitted from web version. [Original was from Green, J. et al, Hospital research and briefing problems, King Edward's Hospital Fund for London, 1971.]

An extreme case of the effect of spatial planning for utility and circulation is provided by the Liverpool Law Courts in England. The functional objective here was to gather 28 court rooms under the same roof together with the necessary areas for custodial, administrative and public accommodation. There are three standard sizes of court, the high courts having a greater headroom than the others! It is necessary to provide separate access and accommodation for jurors, judges, defendants and the public so that there is no danger of contact during the course of a trial. As a result the spatial layout is extremely complex. In contrast to the typical office building, it was necessary to adopt ten separate core towers in order to keep the lifts apart. Only three floors were identical in layout and in certain areas it was impossible to carry loads directly to the foundations. A section of the mezzanine level is suspended from the podium. The variations in headroom and span have made it necessary to adopt a variety of floor systems, including thick solid concrete slabs, ribbed slabs and thin slabs supported on steel beams. [Note 5.]

Darlow (1972) has some interesting comments on the relationship of structure to the function of Shopping Centres. The main need is for flexibility, not only in room layout, but in electrical and mechanical services. There are normally two sizes of area required; large stores and adjacent small shops. (The latter depend for their custom on people attracted by the large stores.) A column grid of 5 m to 10 m is appropriate. The floors absorb some 60 to 80 per cent of the structure cost and so need careful consideration, the unit cost being roughly proportional to the square of the span. Beam and slab construction has the advantage that it is easy to make openings if required without drastically impairing the strength. Flat slabs (i.e. slabs without beams) are generally cheaper, but less amenable to opening, especially near columns. Precast concrete is not widely used because it is not so suitable for irregular plans, forms and loadings.

Internal environment and services

An important part of the planning of habitable buildings, and some others is to control the environment within the building envelope. Under this heading may be included heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC), lighting, and acoustics. It is also necessary to provide services such as water supply and waste removal. The need to control these factors and accommodate all the necessary services may have a considerable influence on the form of the structure and building envelope.

A major consideration in the past decade has been the conservation of energy. From the heating engineer's point of view a cube-shaped building is preferable to a thin rectangular one, particularly one with many wings because the ratio of surface area to volume is less. A desire to insulate the building may influence the choice of cladding, and this may affect the structural engineer's choice between a structural skeleton with non-structural cladding and a load-bearing wall of brick or concrete. Not only does the cost of these alternatives differ but the resulting load on structure and foundations is affected. Building regulations sometimes specify the maximum transmittance permissible for perimeter walls and this may result in thicknesses greater than required for strength alone (depending on the relative cost of providing insulation by other means). The advantages of greater insulation have made the economics of underground structures more attractive, particularly in cold climates. A great deal of heat escapes through the roof of a building and the relative merits of steel and concrete roof systems are being debated. [Note 6.]

The volume of a building has a great effect on the amount of energy consumed by the HVAC system. In the design of a convention centre in Pittsburgh the adoption of masts and cables to support the space frame roof (Fig. 5.4) permitted a reduction in the depth of the roof from some 16 or 20 feet to 7 feet. This lowered the volume of the building by one million cubic feet (28,000 m3). [Note 7.]

Fig. 5.4  Substitute schematic sketch.
[Original was from Engineering News Record (ENR), 11 May 1978.]

There has been an increasing tendency to enclose public space at the base and in the core of multi-storey buildings to provide a controlled environment in the form of 'atriums'.

Much attention is paid to the inclination of surfaces and arranging the form of the envelope to encourage the circulation of air by convection currents. In some buildings a buffer zone of enclosed space about one metre wide is provided around the perimeter to control heat exchange between the exterior and interior. Schemes are becoming more common in which underground reservoirs of ice or rock are employed to balance variations in energy requirements during the day or for longer periods.

Fig. 5.5.   Omitted from web version.
[Original showed cross-section of the vertical glazed buffer zone enclosing the Occidental Chemical Co. HQ, Niagara Falls, NY. (Archt: Cannon Design Inc., Engr: Levine, Burt Hill Kosar Rittelman Assocs.]

Fig. 5.6.   Omitted from web version.
[Original showed schematic diagram of underground water heat sink for the St Paul Town Square Complex, Minnesota. (Archt: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill. Engr: Flack & Kurtz.) Diagram appeared in Architectural Record, Feb. 1983.]

The lighting of buildings is closely connected with questions of energy consumption. In office buildings with 'deep' rooms, that is rooms extending a long distance from the facade and thus requiring artificial lighting, a high proportion of the HVAC energy goes in removing the heat generated by the lights. The provision of natural light through windows which are protected to keep out the summer sun is thus an important consideration, which may present opportunities or challenges for the structural engineer in his search for an efficient means of transmitting forces to the ground. Tall thin windows provide a different form of lighting in a room from wide, low windows, and the architect's choice in this regard may also affect the arrangement of the vertical load-bearing elements. If the decision is made to supplement natural light with artificial, the building depth may be increased, improving the resistance to wind loads. Another alternative is to dispense with natural light altogether, for HVAC reasons. This allows the structural designer to utilize the outer walls fully for load-bearing or, if he adopts a skeletal solution, relieves him of the necessity of positioning the columns to fit in with window dimensions. The situation in this area is quite fluid because of the rapidity with which new products may be introduced. New forms of insulation have become available and glass manufacturers have responded to the energy crisis with the introduction of double and triple glazing and with various types of low transmittance glass (Fig. 10.39).

The need to insulate against the transmission of sound and lower-frequency vibrations is important in most buildings. In residential buildings it may govern the size and weight of floors and partitions. In hospitals and auditoriums it is essential to exclude sound and vibration, and such buildings are often supported on resilient bearings when they are located close to railways or highways. An extreme example is the West Berlin Congress Centre. [Note 8.]

The question of internal acoustics may influence the basic form of theatres, concert halls and auditoriums. The reverberation time is affected by the volume and so the height of the building may be determined by this factor. The focussing of sound by curved surfaces may lead to undesirable effects; and for this reason domes and barrel vaults should not be adopted without careful consideration (see e.g. Beranek, 1962, pp. 105, 387). Both the plan and the longitudinal section of an auditorium are greatly affected by the need to provide good acoustics and sight-lines, for a maximum number of people within the available budget. Reflective plates hung from the roof to improve acoustics may constitute a significant design load.

Fig. 5.7  Omitted from web version.
[Original showed figures from Parkin, Humphries and Cowell, Acoustics, noise and buildings, Faber & Faber, London, 3rd edn.]

It has been mentioned earlier that the provision of services may account for one half of the total cost of a building.[Note 9.] In addition, the allocation of space for pipes, wiring and air-conditioning ducts has an important effect on the structure (Fig. 5.8). Floors must be of sufficient depth to accommodate horizontal services and holes are often cut in the webs of beams to allow ducts to pass through. A disadvantage of this type of provision is that changes in the use of the building or the layout of the rooms may necessitate major alterations in the services causing severe dislocation in the functioning of the building while ceilings are removed and pipes and ducts relocated. It has therefore become common in buildings where change is likely to provide an "interstitial space" (Green et al, 1971). The void between the ceiling and the structural floor above it is deepened to allow access, and the 'ceiling' acquires the status of a lightly loaded floor (Fig. 5.9). Whether the increased flexibility is worth the resulting increase in building height is a matter for economic appraisal.

Fig. 5.8  Adopting the option of close integration between structure and service runs. University of Birmingham, Dept. of Mining & Metallurgy. (Drawing: courtesy of ARUP.)

Fig. 5.9  Adopting the option of clear separation between structure and service runs. John Player & Sons, Horizon Project. (Drawing courtesy of ARUP.)

Vertical ducts may also present a problem and are sometimes accommodated within the columns. Large diameter pipe risers full of water impose significant loads on the structure. In multi-storey buildings vertical passageways are situated alongside the lifts and stairs and surrounded by a prismatic wall to form the 'services core' which acts structurally as the backbone of the building.

Planning of special-purpose industrial structures

In single purpose industrial structures the relationship between function and form is often more direct than is the case in habitable buildings. In most factories the purpose of the structure is still largely one of providing an envelope to protect the workers, their activities and the machines from the weather. However the flow of material and goods through the factory and the layout of production lines may influence the form of the building.

In many industrial buildings the superstructure must support overhead travelling cranes and the substructure carries heavy plant. The requirements for these roles often dominate the form of the structure. [Note 10.] Atkins (1962) identifies a third type of industrial structure, including boiler houses, oil refineries, steel-making and crushing and screening plant, in which the main structure supports the plant and in some cases forms the actual 'housing' of the machinery.

Often the nature of the activity to be enclosed and the shape and size of the mechanical plant, suggest the appropriate form of envelope. Several examples are to be found in Falconer and Drury (1975, pp.231-2 and 235-6), of which Fig. 5.10 is typical.

Fig. 5.10  Relation between form of handling plant and structure: (a) self-supporting conveyor straddles stockpile (b) wall-mounted conveyor with luffing jib. (Drawing after Falconer and Drury 1975.)

In thermal power stations the positioning of turbines and generators with their axes horizontal (Fig. 5.11) gives rise to a very different structure from that of the hydro-electric station with Francis turbines in which the axes are vertical and the generators mounted on top of the turbines. [Note added 2002: In thermal power stations, the turbines, though massive, may be dominated in size by condensers and flues. Thermal power stations also present the structural engineer with the task of designing massive chimneys and, if cooling water is to be recycled, cooling towers. Nuclear power stations require reactor containment vessels.]

Fig. 5.11  Web version not yet prepared.
[Original showed (a) Cross-section through thermal power station at Fawley (CEGB, UK) and (b) Murray 2 hydro-electric power station, SMHEA, Australia.]

In ore-processing plants the planners are faced with the choice of a single-storey structure in which material is conveyed from one process to another by mechanical means, or a more expensive two-storey structure in which the flow is achieved by gravity.

In many structures with a highly specific purpose the functional requirements define a form which immediately suggests a particular mode of structural action. In Europe it has been the practice to approximate the shape of sludge digestion tanks to that of a sphere because the need to provide a continuous envelope capable of resisting internal pressure immediately suggests the use of membrane action. Traditionally this was done by adopting a cylindrical body with a short cone on the top and bottom (Fig. 5.12a). The disadvantage of this form is that high transition stresses develop at the junction between cylinder and cone. In the 1950s Finsterwalder introduced an 'egg-shaped' tank, the first group being completed in Berlin in 1958 (Fig. 5.12b). As a result of the new shape, the vertical bending moments and tensile stresses are reduced to the extent that prestressing in this direction is unnecessary. [Note 11.]

Fig. 5.12  Progressive integration of structural form and function.

It is obvious that the designer should always look for an opportunity to utilize the load-bearing capacity of any mandatory surfaces in this manner and achieve a similar harmony between load bearing and function. It may not always be appropriate, or economic, to do this because of the costs of fabrication and construction, but the possibility should always be considered since it often leads to a solution which is elegant both intellectually and visually.

As we saw earlier, the function of a bridge requires the provision of a continuous horizontal flat surface of defined extent and location. In traditional bridge construction (Fig. 5.13a) this surface was made strong enough to span between closely-spaced cross-beams which in turn rested on the main longitudinal beams. Nowadays it is normal to incorporate the entire deck in the structural action by treating it as a compression flange, resisting the longitudinal stresses. The equivalent of the 'cross-beams' and 'stringers' now appear merely as stiffeners. This is known as the 'orthotropic' deck. The ultimate development has been the box girder in which the flanges of the old main beams have merged to form the top and bottom surface while their webs remain to form the sides and internal webs of the box (Fig. 5.13b).

Fig. 5.13  The progressive integration of form and structural action: (a) traditional bridge construction where separate deck sits on beams, and cross-beams sit on main girders; (b) modern construction where deck spreads wheel loads but also acts as top flange of box beam.

The economy achieved simply by converting the conventional deck into a composite concrete or orthotropic deck has been illustrated by Troitsky (1967). Typical relative sizes are shown in Figure 5.14.

Fig. 5.14  Progressive integration: reduction in size of bridge superstructure in (a) a conventional deck, (b) a composite deck, and (c) an orthotropic deck.

The degree of harmony that can be achieved between form and function is also well illustrated by the latest suspension bridges in which the stiffening trusses and deck systems have been replaced by an aerodynamically designed box girder section (Fig. 5.15).

Fig. 5.15  Refinement in suspension bridge design: comparison of the outline and cross-sections of the Forth Road Bridge (1964) and the Severn Bridge (1966). (Engineers: Freeman Fox & Partners.)

Thus the characteristics of the functional requirements may impose severe constraints on the structural engineer or may provide him with unexpected opportunities in his search for efficient means of transmission of forces.

Flexibility in planning

In conclusion it must be emphasized that there is a school of thought which holds that because precise functional requirements change as lifestyles, industrial processes and social needs develop, building envelopes should not be designed too tightly for one particular function. On the one hand are those like the hospital planners and especially the proponents of the 'High-Tech' movement in present-day architecture who attempt to design flexibility into their buildings. On the other are those like the architect Mies van der Rohe and the modern office developers who provide simple basic space on the assumption that the occupier will make the modifications that best suit him.

Blake (1977) argues strongly that many old structures, designed at the turn of the century, are with modifications serving modern functions far better than buildings designed a few years ago. However this is true mainly for space-enclosing structures with few services and is largely due to the happy coincidence that old building methods provided a larger number of alternative load paths.

Thus even when the relationship between function and form is dubious, the design team is unable to abdicate its responsibility to provide as best it can for future use, and this has a very evident effect on the structural system.

Appendix to Chapter 5.

The span of the Merrivale Bridge in Brisbane was determined by the need for river traffic to negotiate the smaller spans of the nearby William Jolly Bridge and the adjacent curve in the river. See Design in Steel (BHP, Melbourne) Jan. 1979.

[Top.]
[Contents.] [References.]
[Previous Chapter.] [Next Chapter.]

Notes.

Note 1. Examples sighted included Aloi (1972), Schmitt (1966), and the Callwey Verlag series E & P: Entwurf und Planung. The last was published in English by van Nostrand Reinhold as the D & P: Design and Planning series. Titles in English included [as at 1984] Factories, Libraries for schools and universities, Centres for storage and distribution, and New Schools. The German language series contained 32 titles. [Return.]

Note. 2. Texts grouped in this category included de Chiara and Callender (1973), Neufert, E. Architects' data book, Crosby-Lockwood, London, 1970; and the design guides published by a number of bodies such as Architects' Journal (1966, 1967) and the American Hospitals Association (1965). [Return.]

Note 3. One of the tower blocks in the Collins Place development in Melbourne consists of a 35-storey office building with wide-spaced columns and clear floor space, surmounted by a 15-storey hotel with more closely-spaced columns and an internal atrium running the full height of the hotel. The resulting change in column spacing necessitated a heavy prestressed concrete floor system to transfer the loads to the office columns below. (Constructional Review May 1977, 54-61.) [Return.]

Note 4. Interesting discussions of form in multistorey buildings were found in Siegel (1962) and Hart, F. Henn, W. and Sontag, H. Multi-storey Buildings in Steel. Granada Publishing, London, 1978. [Return.]

Note 5. Sources: Concrete June 1979, 12-16; New Civil Engineer 23 Feb. 1978, 20-1; Engineering News Record 25 May 1978, 26-7. [Return.]

Note 6. An example was Civil Engineering - ASCE 48, 5 (May) 1978, 61-3. [Return.]

Note 7. Source: Engineering News Record 11 May 1978, 23. [Return.]

Note 8. Sources: Engineering News Record 24 Jan. 1977, 26-7; Baumeister 9/1979, 881-90, Architectural Review June 1980, 338-45. [Return.]

Note 9. The following introductory texts on building science were consulted. General: Fitch (1972), Burberry (1970), Smith (1971). Acoustics: Beranek (1962), Parkin (1958), MacKenzie (1975). Lighting: Boud (1973). Thermal: Fanger (1973). Elements: windows: Beckett and Godfrey (1974). Walls: Fisher (1972). [Return.]

Note 10. Tight limits on deflection are imposed on cranes used for the accurate positioning of heavy plant, and on the frameworks of movable radio telescopes. An example of the latter was given in Lovell, Sir B. Astronomy and the engineer. The Structural Engineer Jan 1965, 3-10, especially 6-8. [Return.]

Note 11. Sources: Leonhardt (1964) Prestressed concrete design and construction 2nd edn. Wilhelm Ernst, Berlin, p.546 and Bombard,H. Faulbehälter aus Beton. Bauingenieur 54 1979, 77-84. [Return.]

[Top.]

The art in structural design navigation:
[Chapter 4.] [Chapter 6.] [Contents] [References]

Site navigation:
[Aesthetics of built form.] [Papers.] [Work of Jörg Schlaich.]
[John Monash's early engineering.]