Note. When the text of Aesthetics of built form was submitted as part of a PhD thesis in 1996, the Notes were greatly extended. As the reader may prefer to ignore them, they have been collected into separate web pages of which this is one. They are a mixture of: simple page references; additional examples or quotations to justify generalisations; and some afterthoughts.
[4.1] The difference in outlook between art-critics and architects on the one hand, and psychologists of perception on the other. This is exemplified by two books dealing with 'sense of place': Canter (1977) and Scully (1969).
[4.2] Work on the psychology of architecture. There was hope in some quarters that simple techniques could be found for manipulating built form to produce desired psychological or sociological effects. See Mikellides (1980) and Sommer (1980) for conflicting views.
[4.3] Attitudes to Freudian analysis. The preceding sentences were based on general impressions gained from the literature of architecture and in particular: the work of Jencks and his colleagues; Scruton (1979, pp.137-50 and notes 7 and 9); Prak (1968, p.14 and Chapter 2, Section 3, "The roots of emotion in art" pp.19-23 and Notes 8 to 11 on p.190); and Canter (1977).
[4.4] Otto (1983) is one of the few authors who discusses these reactions. Note added 1994: Otto states that technology and building are marked not only by his favourite principle of lightweight structure (sparing of matter and strong relative to its weight) but also by the expression of overwhelming power which the observer recognises through an inrush of fear. Examples are agents of war such as castles and bunkers. They serve as patterns for architecture and are still today the most important component of the aesthetics of architecture.
["Neben dem Prinzip Leichtbau, also dem massearmen, relativ Mächtigen, ist die Technik und Baukunst auch geprägpt durch das Absolut Mächtigere, also durch die Gewalt, die sich durch das Einflößen von Furcht bemerkbar macht. So werden Tötung und Verteidigungsmaschinen wie Burgen und Bunker zu Vorbildern. Sie dienen als Vorlage für Architektur, sie stellen heute noch die wichtigste Komponente der ästhetik in der Architektur."
See Otto (1983) pp.17-19, especially p.18.
[4.5] Experience of the open city square: due to Arnheim (1977), p.20.
[4.6] Scott on perception of and reaction to space: (1924), p.228. The reference to the square living room seems to be my paraphrase.
[4.7] Arnheim reference on tunnel-like passages: (1977), p.156.
[4.8] Conventional criticism limited to rectilinear structures. Nelson (1979) is an exception. He gives an interesting account of space within a tent structure.
[4.9] Scruton on Steiner: (1979), p.189. Scruton uses Steiner's 'Goetheanum' to illustrate this. Photographs of it may be found in most books on twentieth century architecture, for example Curtis (1987), Fig. 18.2.
Note added 1994: The reference to the Goetheanum was introduced during re-drafting. Scruton refers to Steiner's architecture as expressing his "confusion of thought" and "depravity of emotion", but does not specifically mention the Goetheanum. However, the Goetheanum is perhaps the most well-known example of Steiner's architecture.
[4.10] Examples include an anonymous article in Architectural Forum, June 1960, pp.108-15, entitled "Fearless Frank Furness". The author refers to the "vitality", and "excitement" of Furness's buildings and to his "fiery strength" in mocking the academic classicism of his contemporaries. The relevant entry in Smith (1981), vol.1, p.629 reads: "Frank Furness (1839-1912) - 'fearless Frank' he has with reason been called - was probably the gutsiest architect who ever walked the North American continent. His extraordinary buildings, of which, sadly, only a few remain, apotheosise boldness, exude power even when small in size, and clearly anticipated what is now called the New Brutalism: they are preposterously wonderful." Further details may be found in O'Gorman (1973). The reference to artists freeing themselves from prevailing concepts is due to Brolin (1985), pp.6-11, especially p.11.
[4.11] Isler on shells. Discussing their appearance in the natural environment, Isler writes: "Are shells 'foreign bodies'? White, rounded shell shapes are certainly very noticeable. On account of their unfamiliar form they do, in certain surroundings, give rise to controversy. However, their natural and harmonious form, based on the laws of Nature, is more compatible with many landscapes than are other building forms. As a result, they have been used in a considerable number of nature reserves and protected parks, since other forms would have given offence. Thus for several buildings, shells have been chosen because they allowed the client to combine the 'striking' with the 'pleasing' ".
"Sind Schalen Fremdkörper? Weisse runde Schalenformen sind sicher auffällig. Ihrer ungewohnten Gestalt wegen können sie in gewisser Umgebung bestimmt zu Diskussionen Anlass bieten. Ihre natürliche und harmonische, aus Naturgesetzen gefundene Form ist aber besser verträglich mit vielen natürlichen Landschaften als andere Bauformen. So sind an etlichen Orten in Landschaftsschutzgebieten und in geschützten Pärken Schalen zur Anwendung gekommen, da andere Bauformen nicht befriedigt haben. Für etliche Bauten sind Schalen deshalb gewählt worden, weil die Bauherrschaft das Auffällige mit dem Gefälligen verbinden konnte." Isler 1983, p.39.
[4.12] Summerson on character of colonnades: (1980) p.25-6. Summerson remarks "As with all analogies of this sort it is nonsense to press it too far."
[4.13] See Note above re Otto (1983).
[4.14] Scott on three kinds of size: (1924), p.234.
[4.15] Schlaich example of crushing scale: (1986), Fig. 1, p.50. The bridge is not named. The proportions of the bridge were presumably chosen to optimise the balance between parameters such as cost of the structure, cost of the approach roads, convenience to road and river traffic, and ease of construction and fabrication. What other solutions might have been possible, what they would have cost, and whether the result would have been worth any extra expense, are matters that must be left for another forum.
[4.16] Arnheim on "ordering" or "hierarchic subordination": (1977), p.37.
Arnheim on Bramante's Tempietto: (1977), p.131.
It could be argued that in this case much of the sense of monumentality is due to associations inspired by the classical style. The church is illustrated in most texts on the history of architecture, for example Pevsner (1974), Fig. 144, and Jordan (1969), Fig. 202.
[4.17] This quotation does not in fact appear in Horden (1983) and I was unable in 1994/5 to trace where I obtained it. It is possible that there was another Horden source, or that Horden's name became attached to another set of references during word processing of rough notes.
[4.18] The Concise Oxford French Dictionary gives the following meanings for 'brut': 1. (obs.) primitive; 2. raw, natural, untreated, unrefined, unpolished; (champagne) extra dry; (fig.) hard (fact), unelaborated (idea).
[4.19] According to de León (1984, p.26) the rough-cast finish of the ground floor supports (pilotis) was the result of inadequate supervision. Le Corbusier, when he saw it, decided that he liked it.
[4.20] 'Brutalism.' Banham discusses the origin of the term in Banham (1966), p.10.
[4.21] Aggressiveness of brut concrete. See comments on the Yale Art and Architecture Building in the note below.
[4.22] This statement was based on personal observation of buildings in the UK, but especially of those of the 'First Court' of Christ's College, Cambridge. An example which has appeared since the publication of AOBF is to be found in Mulvin, L and Lewis, J. O. Architectural detailing, weathering and stone decay. Building and Environment, v.29, n.1, pp.113-38, 1994. This is the 18th Century, neo-classical Regent House of Trinity College, Dublin.
[4.23] Preference for pure, white forms. An example appears in Le Corbusier (1923). "Decoration is of a sensorial and elementary order, as is colour, and is suited to simple races, peasants and savages." (p.133) and "... cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders or pyramids are the great primary forms which light reveals to advantage: the image of these is distinct and tangible within us and without ambiguity. It is for this reason that these are beautiful forms, the most beautiful forms." (p.31).
[4.24] Neo-classicists disconcerted by colouring of ancient Greek temples. See e.g. Porter and Mikellides (1976) pp. 23-5.
[4.25] A glimpse of the work of Jean-Phillippe Lenclos is to be found in Porter and Mikellides (1976) pp.66-7 and 73-7. Other important figures are Jean and France Cler of Atelier Cler, Paris. The work of others is mentioned in Düttmann et al (1981).
[4.26] Association of colours with death, sorcery and nationalism. See note below.
[4.27] Personal communication, c.1965, from a designer-draughtsman of the Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric Authority and former member of the congregation concerned.
[4.28] Reference to Wren's Library at Trinity College, Cambridge. Cited in Scruton (1979), p.97. A photograph of the building may be found in Gloucester, R. and Hobhouse, H. Oxford and Cambridge, Macdonald and Jane, London, 1980, p.130.
[4.29] Paul Rudolph on Mies van der Rohe's mullions: "Mies knew perfectly well that his thin columns would not give the sense of security necessary in a tall building, so he introduced as a symbol for the column his famous H mullions, which allowed the curtain wall to be so continuous that it finally read as a monolith." Cook and Klotz (1973) p.121.
[4.29A] In the book this bridge was labelled 'Chapel Street Bridge'. It links Chapel St to Church St, but is officially known as 'Church Street Bridge'. Although it is generally ascribed to Sir John Monash, I know of no evidence that he was involved in its design. David Beauchamp has shown that after a competition was won by an architect and engineer, John Albert Laing was called in to produce the definitive engineering design. Laing gained his experience as an engineering assistant in Monash's design office from 1908 onwards.
[4.30] Concepts of heaviness and affliction associated since ancient times. See Greek barus and Latin gravis. I have no record of the text which pointed me to these words.
The wide range of meanings of weight in the English language makes it difficult to distinguish clearly the similar variations in Greek and Latin. The Oxford Greek-English Lexicon (9th edn., 1940) gives many expressions for barus (βαρυσ). These include "heavy in weight" (avoirdupois) with overtones of the strength and force of Homer's heroes - and "heavy to bear, grievous, burdensome, oppressive". The Oxford Latin Dictionary (1975) has 15 meanings for gravis including (1) heavy, weighty, ponderous; (2) weighted, burdened, laden (with something specified or implied); (7) (of persons) overwhelmed, weighed down, oppressed (a) by sleep, intoxication, disease (b) old age (c) sorrow, anxiety.
[4.31] Art appreciation theory. The German concept is generally credited to Volkelt and Lipps. However, Arnheim (1977), p.211-2 mentions only Lipps, while Scruton (1979), p.266 mentions both, with Volkelt first. Croce (1922), p.405 says Robert Vischer "coined" the word. The concept was greatly developed by Heinrich Wölfflin in his doctoral dissertation to the University of Munich in 1886 entitled Prolegomena to a Psychology of Architecture (Zucker 1951).
[4.32] Scott on feelings aroused by architecture: (1924), p.213.
[4.33] Arnheim reference to "closedness": (1977), p.253-4.
[4.34] Arnheim on impressions of "soaring" spires and "leaping" arches (1977), p.49.
[4.35] "... it is possible to look at a tower, which has parallel sides, in either direction." This seems to be another case of 'drift' during re-writing of my drafts. Arnheim (1977) actually discusses this phenomenon in his pp.48-52 with regard to columns.
[4.36] Saarinen vs Johnson on vertical movement of tall buildings. The reference to the CBS building comes from Saarinen (1968), p.16. Referring to the triangular columns of the facade, he writes "These start at the pavement and soar up 491 feet". Johnson, reported in Cook and Klotz (1973), p.15, speaks first of "...Wallace Harrison's steel building in Pittsburgh, where the building just keeps right on going. Well, I think the CBS building is just as bad; you don't know when you've hit bottom." Later he says "Nowadays, a lot of buildings go right down into the ground. They just keep right on going; they don't stop."
[4.37] Arnheim on columns (1977), pp.48-52.
[4.38] Scott on bodily gesture (1924), p.222-3.
[4.39] Scully on Aalto's Church at Imatra (1974), p.37.
[4.40] This description is sometimes attributed to Friedrich von Schelling (1775-1854) whose Philosophie der Kunst appeared in 1859. However Gideon Bosker (1985) states that "On 23 March 1829 Goethe wrote to Herr Eckermann 'Ich die Baukunst eine erstarrte Musik nenne' ". Schelling's Philosophie der Kunst was reprinted in 1960 by Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt. Section 107 on p.216 begins: "Die anorgische Kunstform oder die Musik in der Plastik ist die Architektur ... Daß [die Architektur] aber die Musik in der Plastik sei, ist auf folgende Art einzusehen" although I do not know whether this is the source of the attribution to Schelling. On the frontispiece of Bosker (1985) (the fifth side, as bound) appears the notation "On 23 March 1829, the German author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote to Herr Eckermann: 'Ich die Baukunst eine erstarrte Musik nenne'."
[4.41] House facades suggestive of faces. See Kazumasa Yamashita's "Face House" in Kyoto, illustrated e.g. in Jencks (1981), p.116.
[4.42] Arnheim quotation: 'viewed from close by ...' (1977), p.138.
[4.43] Arnheim quotation: 'turned away, dwelling in a world of its own ...' (1977), p.140.
[4.44] [Arnheim] considers the frontal view ... to be much more inviting. This is implied on pp.139-40 (1977), although on p.134 he argues that 'frontality' may be somewhat unnerving.
[4.45] [Arnheim] notes that such perceptions are particularly relevant to buildings 'locked in by their neighbours'. (1977), p.138.
[4.46] Peter Smith reference, and quotations: 'stands blind, isolated and emasculated' and 'overhanging tower seems to be gloating over its lifeless victim'. (1979), p.42.
[4.47] Vitruvius on Doric versus Ionic: Morgan (1914), p.104.
[4.48] Louis Sullivan on the Marshall Field Wholesale Store. Scully (1974), p.18.
[4.49] Arnheim on FLW's building's: (1977), p.44.
[4.50] "Scully's statement that the Church at Imatra ... looks out at the world with 'crocodile eyes'." In preparing the PhD thesis in 1994/5, I was unable to trace this statement in Scully's work. There may have been confusion with a statement made by Banham who refers to alligator eyes: "... Imatra seems, at first, to turn from the viewer and hide, humping its copper roofs defensively against the sky and lifting cautious windows, like watchful alligator eyes, above the white substructure in which it seems to burrow." (Banham,R. Guide to modern architecture. Architectural Press, London, 1963, p.126, cited in Jencks 1973, p.176).
[4.51] Skyscrapers have been dubbed 'matchboxes' ... Jencks (1977), p.52.
Jencks on the Hirschhorn Museum: (1981) pp.19-20.
[4.52] Tzonis and Lefaivre on erotic potential: (1986), p.37.
[4.53] Geoffrey Scott's defence of Baroque architecture and quotations: (1924), pp.148-50.
[4.54] Twisted shafts in the cloister of San Pedro, Estella.
See TAISD Fig. 18.2, p.250.
Hanging 'columns' of Kevin Roche's John Deere building. See TAISD Fig.8.5, p.99 and quotation of Kevin Roche in the caption.
Impressions of the work of Site Inc were found in Restany, P. and Zevi (1980); Architecture Australia, Oct./Nov. 1977, pp.53-55; Architectural Review v.163, No.973, March 1978, pp.132-134 and v.167, No.998, April 1980, pp.221-225.
[4.55] Jencks on Eisenman's House 6 (including quotation): (1987), p.121-2.
[4.56] "Mannerist designers invert the rules and mock the conventions, without allowing their audience to forget that the rules exist. This may done with such brilliance of technique and composition that jaded appetites are revitalised."
The style of these phrases is reminiscent of Jencks who often writes of "inversion of rules", while Summerson covers Mannerism and the breaking of "rules" at length in his chapters 3 and 4. However, I am reasonably confident that these sentences are not direct quotations, but are merely influenced by these authors.
[4.57] ... a reference to the smoke which issued from the tops of many of the projects of the 'Revolutionary' architects ... Hughes (1979), p.39.
[4.58] Francis Ching on ordering principles: (1979), p.333.
[4.59] This quotation does not appear in Horden (1983) and I was unable in 1994/5 to trace where I obtained it. It is possible that there was another Horden source, or that Horden's name became attached to another set of references during word processing of rough notes. The third draft of AOBF contains a note that Arnheim (1977, p.37) writes of "hierarchic subordination".
[4.60] Scott: order not sufficient for beauty: (1924), p.206-8.
[4.61] Burckhardt quotation. From Burckhardt's Cicerone translated and cited by Arnheim (1977), p.185.
The Porta Pia is illustrated and discussed in Arnheim (1977), pp.183-8.
[4.62] Rasmussen on Porta Pia: "the spectator ..." (1959), p.58.
[4.63] Arnheim quotations:
"a surrealistic contradiction between incompatible images": (1977), p.25.
disorder is not "maximum absence of order": (1977), 171.
the "isolated targets of our immediate purpose": (1977), p.176.
[4.64] The relevant passage reads: "...typical space frames are regular - the building blocks repeat, and are small compared with the overall dimensions of the system. This means that an observer located inside the space lacks a distinct point of reference in the structure which surrounds him. Each building block is exactly the same as each other building block, and a certain degree of disorientation may ensue. (The writer [Medwadowski] has experienced this while attending a conference held in a Temcor-like geodesic dome similar to the one shown in [his] Figure 19.)" Medwadowski (1983), p.13.
[4.65] Leonhardt on fan-shaped cables: (1982), pp.50-2.
[4.66] Scott: "what is unexpected, wild, fantastic, accidental": (1924), p.81.
[4.67] Peter Smith on "rhyme": (1979), Chapters 5 and 6.
Smith credits the concept of "rhyme" to an animal biologist, Humphrey Smith (1979), p.31. See Humphrey (1973), especially pp.434-9 on "The propensity to classify - and the love of rhyme". On p.434, Humphrey describes "stimulus discrepancy" or "rhyme", as he prefers to call it, as follows "... the gist ... is that men who have been exposed for some time to a particular sensory stimulus respond with pleasure to minor variations from that stimulus ... human babies who have been made familiar with a particular 'abstract' visual pattern take pleasure in seeing new patterns which are minor transformations of the original."
[4.68] Scott: forms "jammed together". The expression "jammed together", and its inverted commas, are mine. Page 148 of Scott (1924) contains the following "... the building must be realised as a mass, a thing welded together, not parcelled, distributed and joined ... the parts should appear to flow together, merge into one another, spring from one another, and form, as it were, a fused gigantic organism through which currents of continuous vigour might be conceived to run."
[4.69] "Arnheim notes that the angles and curves of the Baroque facade deviate from the virtually present norm by just sufficient to leave the impression of a flat plane that has been pushed and pulled."
This is not my style (especially the phrase "the virtually present norm") but the nearest I can find in Arnheim (1977) is "The angles and curves by which Baroque facades deviate from a flat front supply strong visual dynamics. They give the impression of an originally straight front that has been contracted by squeezing and bending" (p.180).
[4.70] Geoffrey Scott on the authority, dignity, and poise of classic design. Scott (1924), p.225.
Scott's words are: "The forms are so adjusted amid the surrounding contours as to cancel all suggested movement".
[4.71] "The startling way ..." The citation in Ligo (1984), p.54 is: "Anonymous. MIT Senior Dormitory. Architectural Forum XCI (Aug. 1949), p.63."
[4.72] Robert Venturi appreciates dissonance. Based on Venturi (1977). Chapter headings include: "Complexity and contradiction vs. simplification or picturesqueness", "Ambiguity", "Contradictory levels: the phenomenon of 'both-and' in architecture", "Contradiction juxtaposed".
[4.73] Bridges in visually sensitive areas ... painted a bright red. Examples appear in Leonhardt (1982), p.255 (Fig. 12.109, bridge across the Kinki Expressway in Japan, and Fig. 12.110, bridge across the Sfalassa Gorge, southern Italy). For the Japanese, red is an auspicious colour which is much used for temples.
[4.74] Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye. An appropriate illustration appears in Foster (1982), p.126.
[4.75] Isler ... commends the simplicity of shells ...
"On the other hand, every true shell building is characterised by its simplicity. Although every point has its own height and curvature, the form as a whole is very clear and simple. From outside, the forms appear small and of low volume ... from inside, on the other hand, they seem capacious and free. And because of the lack of beams, props, or maze of truss members, [a reference perhaps to space trusses] the ceilings are unobtrusive and do not attract attention from what is happening in the enclosed space. The greatest simplicity lies, however, in the fact that the outer and inner forms are identical. They differ by a geometrical quantity of only 10 centimetres."
"Anderseits ist jeder echte Schalenbau charakterisiert durch seine Einfachheit. Obwohl jeder Punkt seine individuelle Höhe und Krümmung aufweist, sind die Formen als Ganzes sehr klar und einfach. Von aussen wirken die runden Baukörper klein und wenig voluminös ... Von innen hingegen wirken die Formen gross und frei. Und durch das Wegfallen von Trägern, Unterzügen oder Stabgewirr sind die Dächer unauffällig und lassen dem, was im Raum geschieht, die Hauptaufmerksamkeit. Die grösste Einfachheit liegt aber in der Tatsache, dass Aussengestalt und Innenform identisch sind. Unterscheiden sich doch beide nur durch eine geometrische Differenz von nicht einmal 10 Zentimetern." Isler (1983), p.38.)
[4.76] Smith on analysis of complexity: (1979), p.59.
[4.77] The expression "tolerance of ambiguity" was found in the literature of creativity, but in 1994/5 I have been unable to trace the exact source. I first used it in a report entitled 'Creativity' and the Teaching of Structural Design. Report No. 75/152/1/Sec. Higher Education Advisory and Research Unit, Monash University. March 1975. The concept itself is common. See e.g. the reference in Barron (1969), p.38 to "... an ability to hold many ideas in one's head at once and to keep them open to complex combinations with one another".
[4.78] "Three separate types of [mental] association have been distinguished." The record of the source of this categorisation has been thoroughly mislaid. It is thought to be from Beardsley.
[4.79] Ruskin's argument against Renaissance architecture: Scott (1924), p.124.
[4.80] "Ignorant and monkist barbarians". Scott (1924), p.47 says Goethe realised, on visiting Strasbourg Cathedral, that it could not be the work of "ignorant and monkish barbarians".
[4.81] The idealised Goth "firm in his faith and noble in his aspirations". Scott (1924), p.53.
[4.82] My original note at this point read: "It is difficult to explain, for example, the appeal of the Saltash bridge (Fig. 4.21) on purely formal grounds". One reviewer of the penultimate draft (on behalf of OUP) protested that he "quite liked" the bridge. This is not quite the same thing. The reference in the text is to formal considerations of line, unity, harmony, etc. Without carrying out a detailed analysis it can be said immediately that when the bridge is seen from an oblique angle the superstructure seems to sit rather oddly on gangly piers. (Fig. 4.21, p.122 of AOBF, taken with a 28mm lens foreshortens and distorts the spans). Although the physical outward thrust of the arches is counteracted by the inward pull of the suspension cables, the abrupt termination of form at the outer piers is disturbing in the visual sense. There is also a visual discontinuity between the straight, horizontal deck and the upward curving arch. The suspension cable does tend to unite these two members visually but is not sufficiently well defined to do so and the 'busy-ness' of the vertical members competes for attention.
[4.83] Somewhat less potent and less universal associations listed by Charles Jencks: (1987) pp.40-44.
[4.84] "Geoffrey Scott attacked the metaphoric images employed in architectural criticism ... under the heading of 'literary allusion' within the 'Romantic fallacy'."
Pages 52 to 65 in Scott's chapter on the Romantic Fallacy refer to the negative influence of literary thinking on architecture, but I can see no reference to "allusion" and think I must have transferred this term from other sources.
Literary allusion as a distraction from the visual. Scott (1924) discusses this question in pp.210-6. Again, the term "allusion" must have introduced by me. On this reading, I note that Scott is not actually advancing these arguments - he is setting them up in order to work round them.
[4.85] "Scott condemns also the excessive use of poetic metaphor, such as the description of architecture as 'frozen music'."
Scott does condemn the excessive use of poetic metaphor, but the example of "frozen music" is mine. Scott's position is summarised in his pp. 60-3 (1924). Collins (1965) attacks the same target in the latter part of his Chapter 21: "The influence of literature and criticism", especially pp.257-61.
See Note above re the origin of the term "frozen music".
[4.86] Ruskin on the facade of St Mark's: Ruskin (1851-3), edited and abridged version by J.G. Links, p.149.
[4.87] Scott quotation on literary allusions: (1924), pp.63-4.
[4.88] Peter Collins on danger of literary allusions: (1965), p.260.
[4.89] Peter Blake on low slung roof planes: (1976), p.61.
[4.90] Mies's Farnsworth House emotionally cold? See Hitchcock and Drexler (1952). Dr Farnsworth found the retreat too expensive to use and according to Jencks (1973, p. 104) brought legal action against Mies.
[4.91] Drexler on the illusion of effortless organisation: cited in Ligo (1984) p.54 as from Drexler, A. Built in USA: Post-War Architecture, (New York 1952), p.21.
[4.92] Architectural Review on Art And Architecture Building: cited by Ligo (1984), p.54 as Architectural Review, CXXXV (May 1964) p.79.
[4.93] Jacobus on Villa Savoye: cited in Ligo (1984), p.54 as Jacobus (1966), p.22.
[4.94] Sense of place. Scully (1969) is a renowned example of this sort of writing.
[4.95] Concept of genius loci in modern criticism. See Norberg-Schultz (1979). Scully (1969) is also relevant.
[4.96] Moore's article 'Hadrian's Villa' was originally published in Perspecta 6, 1958. See also "You have to pay for public life", Perspecta 9/10, 1975. Both articles were reprinted in Moore and Allen (1976).
[4.97] Conscious attempts in architecture to manipulate emotions. Raskin (1966) discusses this question in relation to architectural design (1966 2edn, pp. 87-98). Ching provides examples of approaches, paths, and sequences under the heading of "Circulation" (1979, pp. 247-289).
[4.98] Geoffrey Scott on the "biological fallacy" and "academic tradition": (1924), Chapter 6 and Chapter 7.
[4.99] Scott did recognise that certain benefits flow from such interest, citing the re-appraisal of Gothic architecture as a major example (1924, p.167).
[4.100] See Broadbent, Bunt, and Jencks 1980, pp.265-8 or for more detail: Eisenman, P. (ed.) Houses of cards. Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1987.
[4.101] Ricardo Bofill's 'Palace of Abraxas'. Descriptions of this building are to be found in Architectural Record, March 1982, Architectural Review, June 1982, and Progressive Architecture, October 1982.
[4.102] Rejection of conventions to provide a richer aesthetic experience. Stanley Abercrombie discusses this question at length in his chapter on meaning (1984, eighth, un-numbered chapter, pp.125-45).
[4.103] Geoffrey Scott: falsity in baroque architecture part of a compact between architect and public: (1924), p.15.
[4.104] Intention of the designer as an factor in appreciation. Some theorists distinguish between the understanding of a work of art, and the evaluation of its worth. They consider intent to be relevant to the first process, but not to the second. Dickie (1971) is one philosopher who considers it necessary to know something of the original aims of the designer, especially how high they were pitched (pp.111-2).
[4.105] The dangers of interpreting symbolism are illustrated in the final scene of Joseph Losey's film Accident. A family stands at the gate of their house with a small dog which after some hesitation trots out of the picture. Reviewers of the film were tempted to suggest a variety of meanings for this final action. Losey himself explained later that it was entirely fortuitous and occurred because the dog could not be persuaded to remain still, as originally intended. See Losey,J. (1967) Losey on Losey. Martin Secker and Warburg, London, p.18.
[4.106] Scott (1924) pp.114-8. Scott's argument goes further. He believes that even if we are able to comprehend fully the structural action of a work of architecture, this does not greatly affect our emotional response to its form.
Authors who have tackled this problem include Arup (1955) and Medwadowski. Torroja discusses it at length in his Chapter 17. See particularly p.276 where he notes that while we would not want to deceive, we would not want to go to the opposite extreme of painting the line of the reinforcement on the side of a reinforced concrete beam.
Faber (1945) also notes (pp.6-7) that strength and the appearance of strength are not the same thing.
[4.107] The Paris Opera (Palais Garnier). Further information on this building is to be found in Mead, C. C. (1991). Charles Garnier's Paris Opera. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. A useful cut-away drawing appears on pp.214-5 of Norwich (1979).
[4.108] Introductory texts on the appreciation of architecture suggested at the time of writing included: Caudill et al. (1978), Bloomer and Moore (1977), Gauldie (1969), Rasmussen (1959), Arnheim (1977), Smith (1979), Raskin (1966), Ching (1979), and Grillo (1975). For modernism see Banham (1975), Zevi (1978), and Giedion (1967). For post-modernism see Jencks (1987). Also Norberg-Schultz (1980), Scott (1924), Scruton (1979), Watkin (1977), and Venturi (1966).
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